Melanoma é uma neoplasia maligna com comportamento agressivo considerado o câncer mais comum da cavidade bucal de cães. Ele pode ser classificado quanto a morfologia celular em epitelióide, fusiforme e misto ou quanto ao fenótipo: melânico ou amelânico. Estudos têm sugerido que os melanomas amelânicos são mais agressivos. O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar o comportamento dos melanomas da cavidade bucal dos cães, quantificando a expressão das Cx26 e 43, caderina-E, MMPs 2 e 9 e proliferação celular. Para tanto foram coletados 25 melanomas provenientes de cães atendidos no HOVET FMVZ-USP (16 melânicos e 9 amelânicos). Após a cirurgia os animais foram acompanhados até a morte, sendo que 5 animais foram eutanasiados (2 antes da cirurgia e 3 após o procedimento cirúrgico, devido ao sofrimento físico). Os tumores eram diagnosticados através do histopatológico e classificados de acordo com OMS (1998). Para confirmação dos melanomas amelânicos foi utilizado à técnica de imuno-histoquímica com o perfil de anticorpos pré-estabelecidos. A proliferação celular foi quantificada através do uso de PCNA, índice apoptótico e caspase-3. O comportamento tumoral foi avaliado através da técnica de imuno-histoquímica para caderina-E e MMPs 2 e 9. E a expressão das Cxs foram avaliadas através da imunofluorescência e western blot. Cães com melanma amelânico apresentaram menor sobrevida, com aumento do número de metástase, fraca marcação para caderina-E e alta intensidade para as MMPs 2 e 9, aumento de células positivas para PCNA e índice mitótico, e diminuição da caspase-3, não havendo diferença significante quanto aos tipos histotógicos. Houve diminuição de expressão das Cxs entre os amelânicos, no entanto, aumento da síntese do gene de CX 26 entre o mesmo grupo, o que se verificou através do PCR em Tempo Real. Nossos achados sugerem que os melanomas da cavidade bucal de cães apresentam um comportamento mais agressivo / Melanoma is a malignant neoplasm with aggressive behavior considered the most common cancer of the buccal cavity in dogs. It can be classified as cell morphology in epithelioid, spindle and mixed or on the phenotype, in melanotic or amelanotic. Studies have suggested that amelanotic melanomas are more aggressive. The aim of this study was to evaluate the behavior of melanoma of the buccal cavity of dogs, quantifying the expression of Connexins 26 and 43, E-cadherin, MMPs 2 and 9 and cell proliferation. For both melanomas were collected from 25 dogs attended at HOVET FMVZ (USP) (16 melanotic and 9 amelanotic melanomas). After the surgery, the animals were followed until death, so 5 animals were euthanized (2 before surgery and 3 after surgery, due to physical suffering). The tumors were diagnosed by histopathology and classified according to WHO (1998). For confirmation of amelanotic melanomas it was used the technique of immune-histochemistry with the antibody profile pre-established. Cell proliferation was quantified by using PCNA, apoptotic index and caspase-3. The tumor behavior was evaluated using the technique of immune-histochemistry for E-cadherin and MMPs 2 and 9. And the expression of Cxs was evaluated by immune-fluorescence and western blot. Dogs with amelanotic melanoma had lower survival with increasing number of metastatic, weak immunoreactivity for E-cadherin and high intensity for MMP 2 and 9, an increase of cells positive for PCNA and mitotic index, and decreased caspase-3, no significant difference in the morphologic subtypes. There was a decrease of expression of Cxs between amelanotic, however, increased synthesis of CX 26 gene among the same group, which was verified by real time PCR. Our findings suggest that melanomas of the buccal cavity of dogs exhibited more aggressive behavior.

Dans les organismes multicellulaires, les cellules génèrent et subissent des forces mécaniques qui se propagent aux cellules voisines. Ces forces peuvent déterminer la forme des tissus et organes, et aussi être converties en signaux biochimiques. Dans un épithélium, les cellules forment un tissu en adhérant directement les unes aux autres grâce à des complexes d’adhérence, tels que les Jonctions Adhérentes. Ces Jonctions Adhérentes sont composées de protéines transmembranaires les E-cadhérines, dont la partie cytoplasmique est sous tension générée par le cytosquelette d’actomyosine par un lien assurée par la β-caténine. La β-caténine est aussi un cofacteur de transcription majeur qui régule l’activité de gènes impliqués dans la transition épithélio-mésenchymateuse une fois dans le noyau. L’accumulation nucléaire et l’activité transcriptionnelle de la β-caténine peuvent avoir lieu à la suite de stimulations mécaniques dans des situations physiologiques et pathologiques, et ont été proposées comme la conséquence d’une libération de la β-caténine des Jonctions Adhérentes suite à sa phosphorylation. Néanmoins, les preuves directes de ce phénomène et ses mécanismes manquent, et le rôle qu’y tient la tension des E-cadhérines n’est pas connu.Dans cette thèse, nous avons établi la relation entre la tension des E-cadhérines et la localisation nucléaire et l’activité de la β-caténine, prouvé l’existence d’une translocation de la membrane au noyau de la β-caténine, et caractérisé les mécanismes moléculaires sous-jacents dans des cellules en migration induite par un facteur de croissance ou par blessure sur un épithélium, deux conditions qui récapitulent au moins partiellement une transition épithélio-mésenchymateuse.Nous avons montré que l’accumulation nucléaire de la β-caténine est due à un départ substantiel de celle-ci de la membrane, spécifiquement dans les cellules en migration. Cette translocation a lieu en aval d’une voie de signalisation impliquant les kinases Src et FAK, et qui conduit à une relaxation de tension des E-cadhérines. Le mécanisme sous-jacent implique une réorganisation du cytosquelette d’actine, caractérisé par un enrichissement des fibres des stress ventrales, soutenant les protrusions, en phospho-myosine, au détriment du cortex d’actine des Jonctions Adhérentes. En revanche, les phosphorylations dans le complexe cadhérine/caténine ne sont pas requises. Ces résultats démontrent que les E-cadhérines ont un rôle de senseur de la mécanique intracellulaire, et que les adhésions focales sont impliquées dans l’activation de la voie de signalisation β-caténine / In multicellular organisms, cells generate and experience mechanical forces that propagate between and within cells. These forces may shape cells, tissues and organs, and also convert into biochemical signals. In a simple epithelium, cells form tissue sheets by directly adhering to one another through adhesion complexes, such as the Adherens Junctions. Adherens Junctions comprise transmembrane proteins E-cadherins, which are under actomyosin-generated tension via a link that contains β-catenin. β-catenin is also a major transcription cofactor that regulates gene activity associated with Epithelial-to-Mesenchyme Transition when translocated in the nucleus. β-catenin nuclear localization and transcriptional activity are mechanically inducible in a variety of healthy and disease models and were proposed to follow phosphorylation-induced -catenin release from E-cadherin. However, direct evidence for this translocation and these mechanisms are lacking, and whether E-cadherin tension is involved is unknown.In this thesis, we assess the relationship between E-cadherin tension and β-catenin nuclear localization and activity, determine the relevance of β-catenin shuttling between membrane and nucleus, and characterize the underlying molecular mechanisms in cells migrating in an at least partial EMT-like fashion upon hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) or wound stimulation. We showed that β-catenin nuclear activity follows a substantial release from the membrane that is specific to migrating cells. This translocation occurs downstream of the Src-FAK pathway, which targets E-cadherin tension relaxation. The underlying mechanisms sufficiently involve actomyosin remodeling, characterized by an enrichment of ventral stress fibers that capture phosphomyosin at the expense of the cortex at Adherens Junctions. In contrast, phosphorylations of the cadherin/catenin complex are not substantially required. These data demonstrate that E-cadherin acts as a sensor of intracellular mechanics in a crosstalk with cell-substrate adhesions that targets β-catenin signaling

Numerous events during development require the tightly controlled and regulated interaction of cells - from gastrulation in the early embryo to axonal pathfinding and remodeling of synaptic networks. Each of these events is dependent upon signals generated by cell-cell interactions, which are in turn specified by a diverse number of cell adhesion molecules. Many families of cell adhesion molecules have been described, and these fall into the broad categories of cadherins, immunoglobulin superfamily (IgSF) members, selectins, and integrins. Activated Leukocyte Cell Adhesion Molecule (ALCAM) is a member of the IgSF, and controls numerous developmental processes, ranging from hematopoiesis to neuronal targeting. Furthermore, this protein has been implicated in the progression of numerous cancers of diverse origins. Despite the variety of developmental and pathological processes in which ALCAM has been implicated, little is known about how it signals in the cell - few extracellular binding partners have been isolated, and, as of this writing, no cytoplasmic interactors have been identified. The purpose of the work presented in this thesis was to elucidate the mechanisms by which ALCAM influences cell behavior, specifically in uveal melanoma cells, and to determine novel extra- and intracellular ligands. Here, I report the regulation of cadherin-based junctions by ALCAM in uveal melanoma cells, as well as provide evidence for a novel extracellular interaction with L1 cell adhesion molecule, and identify three novel intracellular binding partners.

Adherens junctions are essential for embryogenesis and tissue homeostasis. The major transmembrane adhesion receptors in adherens junctions are the cadherins, which mediate cell-cell adhesion by binding to cadherins on adjacent cells. Cadherin function is regulated by the protein complexes that assemble at its cytoplasmic tail. Vinculin is one cytoplasmic component of the cadherin adhesion complex, but unlike other junction components, it also is enriched in cell-matrix adhesions. The presence of vinculin in cellmatrix adhesions has commanded the most attention, while little is known about its role in cell-cell adhesions. To define the role of vinculin in adherens junctions, I established a short hairpin RNA-based knockdown/substitution system that perturbs vinculin preferentially at sites of cell-cell adhesion. When this system was applied to epithelial cells, cell morphology was altered, and cell-cell adhesion was reduced owing to a lack of cadherin on the cell surface. I investigated the mechanism for this effect and found that vinculin must bind to beta-catenin to regulate E-cadherin surface expression. Having established a role for vinculin in cell-cell adhesions, the critical question became how vinculin recruitment to and activation at cell-cell junctions are regulated. I found that á-catenin triggers activating vinculin conformational changes. Unlike all of the known vinculin activators in cell-matrix adhesions, alpha-catenin binds and activates vinculin independently of an A50I substitution. Thus, adherens junction activators and cell-matrix activators bind to distinct regions of vinculin to activate this molecule. Using mutant vinculins that cannot be tyrosine phosphorylated, I found that vinculin recruitment to cell-cell adhesions, but not cell-matrix adhesions, requires phosphorylation at Y822. Furthermore, this residue is phosphorylated by Abl tyrosine kinases during the assembly of cell-cell adhesions. Taken together, these studies explain how vinculin is differentially recruited to adherens junctions and cell-matrix adhesions and describes the first known role for vinculin at cell-cell adhesions.

Vascular endothelial cell loss initiates directional migration of medial smooth muscle cells into the arterial intima contributing to in-stent restenosis, atherosclerosis and coronary arterial by-pass graft failure. N-cadherin is a cell-cell adhesion molecule that mediates the interaction between vascular endothelial cells and the innermost smooth muscle cells to stabilize the arterial wall. Upon injury, I reasoned that relocalization of N-cadherin on the inner most smooth muscle cells to the posterior-lateral borders stimulates cell polarization to enable directional migration. Using an in vitro scratch-wound model to stimulate cell polarity and locally remove cell-cell contacts at one pole of smooth muscle cells, I found that N-cadherin localization provides signaling cues via a Cdc42/GSK pathway that promote polarized reorganization of the cytoskeleton and directional cell migration. I also found that N-cadherin was important to functions of lamellipodia at the anterior of migrating cells. In lamellipodia, actin polymerization drives protrusion of the leading edge and coincident, but more posterior, actin depolymerization results in retrograde flow of actin and associated plasma membrane structures. Using live cell imaging, I found that clusters of N-cadherin-GFP repeatedly accumulated at the leading edge specifically at the neck of large pinocytotic vesicles called macropinosomes that were internalized and transported away from the leading edge. This localization is consistent with a role for N-cadherin in closure and scission of vesicles during macropinocytosis. These are the first studies to examine polarity in migrating vascular smooth muscle cells, and advance our understanding concerning cell-cell adhesions in controlling directional cell migration. My results suggest that N-cadherin may serve as a viable target for the treatment of arterial stenosis that would limit smooth muscle cell migration and stabilize the arterial wall. Furthermore, I report on a novel localization and function of N-cadherin in the biogenesis of macropinosomes in the lamellipodia that contribute to cell protrusion.

Epigenetic mechanisms are essential for normal cell development. Alteration in those normal processes leads to malignant cell transformation and with this to cancer development. Use of inhibitors that alter the epigenetics of DNA methylation and histone post translational modifications has lead to the exploration of the epigenetic mechanism involved in silencing of tumor suppressor genes in cancer, including acute myeloid leukemia (AML). Moreover, combinations of inhibitors that target various epigenetic enzymes have being recognized to be more effective in the re-activation of tumor suppressor genes than individual drug treatments. Here, we reported that p15, p21 and E-cadherin genes are more effectively re-expressed using a combination of DNA methyltransferase and histone methyltransferase inhibitors in AML cell lines. Re-expression of hypermethylated p15 and E-cadherin genes required reduced levels of promoter histone 3 lysine 9 (H3K9) methylation rather than inhibition of DNA methylation itself. Moreover, induction of p21 expression was associated with changes in promoter histone 3 lysine 9 methylation (H3K9Me) by achieving inhibition of the histone methyltransferase, SUV39H1, activity. Altogether, our results highlight the potential of combining epigenetic drugs in the re-activation of epigenetically silenced tumor suppressor genes and the need for evaluating histone methyltransferases as therapeutic targets for treatment of acute myeloid malignancies.

Vascular endothelial cell loss initiates directional migration of medial smooth muscle cells into the arterial intima contributing to in-stent restenosis, atherosclerosis and coronary arterial by-pass graft failure. N-cadherin is a cell-cell adhesion molecule that mediates the interaction between vascular endothelial cells and the innermost smooth muscle cells to stabilize the arterial wall. Upon injury, I reasoned that relocalization of N-cadherin on the inner most smooth muscle cells to the posterior-lateral borders stimulates cell polarization to enable directional migration. Using an in vitro scratch-wound model to stimulate cell polarity and locally remove cell-cell contacts at one pole of smooth muscle cells, I found that N-cadherin localization provides signaling cues via a Cdc42/GSK pathway that promote polarized reorganization of the cytoskeleton and directional cell migration. I also found that N-cadherin was important to functions of lamellipodia at the anterior of migrating cells. In lamellipodia, actin polymerization drives protrusion of the leading edge and coincident, but more posterior, actin depolymerization results in retrograde flow of actin and associated plasma membrane structures. Using live cell imaging, I found that clusters of N-cadherin-GFP repeatedly accumulated at the leading edge specifically at the neck of large pinocytotic vesicles called macropinosomes that were internalized and transported away from the leading edge. This localization is consistent with a role for N-cadherin in closure and scission of vesicles during macropinocytosis. These are the first studies to examine polarity in migrating vascular smooth muscle cells, and advance our understanding concerning cell-cell adhesions in controlling directional cell migration. My results suggest that N-cadherin may serve as a viable target for the treatment of arterial stenosis that would limit smooth muscle cell migration and stabilize the arterial wall. Furthermore, I report on a novel localization and function of N-cadherin in the biogenesis of macropinosomes in the lamellipodia that contribute to cell protrusion.

Epigenetic mechanisms are essential for normal cell development. Alteration in those normal processes leads to malignant cell transformation and with this to cancer development. Use of inhibitors that alter the epigenetics of DNA methylation and histone post translational modifications has lead to the exploration of the epigenetic mechanism involved in silencing of tumor suppressor genes in cancer, including acute myeloid leukemia (AML). Moreover, combinations of inhibitors that target various epigenetic enzymes have being recognized to be more effective in the re-activation of tumor suppressor genes than individual drug treatments. Here, we reported that p15, p21 and E-cadherin genes are more effectively re-expressed using a combination of DNA methyltransferase and histone methyltransferase inhibitors in AML cell lines. Re-expression of hypermethylated p15 and E-cadherin genes required reduced levels of promoter histone 3 lysine 9 (H3K9) methylation rather than inhibition of DNA methylation itself. Moreover, induction of p21 expression was associated with changes in promoter histone 3 lysine 9 methylation (H3K9Me) by achieving inhibition of the histone methyltransferase, SUV39H1, activity. Altogether, our results highlight the potential of combining epigenetic drugs in the re-activation of epigenetically silenced tumor suppressor genes and the need for evaluating histone methyltransferases as therapeutic targets for treatment of acute myeloid malignancies.

Sickle cell anemia is a hematological disorder that is caused by a single point mutation in the beta-globin chain of hemoglobin. It results in several complications related to the small and large vessels in patients with the disease. Large vessel complications include cerebral infarcts, which are observed in children under ten years old. The mechanism behind this complication is not completely understood. It is the goal of this project to begin to understand the role sickle erythrocytes may play in causing endothelial dysfunction as a precursor to sickle related complications. The hypothesis of this work is that exposure of large vessel endothelium to sickle erythrocytes causes an increase in endothelial permeability through loosening of adherens junctions. In the first goal of this work, bovine aortic endothelial cells (BAECs) are grown on coverslips and exposed to sickle erythrocytes for 5 minutes and either immediately fixed or incubated in 30 minutes and then fixed. Immunofluorescent studies labeling VE cadherin show changes in VE cadherin dynamics, suggesting sickle erythrocytes may be involved in this observation. Next, BAECs were grown on transwell inserts and exposed to sickle erythrocytes for 5 minutes. The erythrocytes are washed off and the BAEC are incubated with 10,000 MW dextran conjugated to lucifer yellow or FITC-BSA or to determine BAEC permeability. When dextran is used as the test molecule, endothelial permeability did not show a significant change from baseline. However, when BSA is used as the test molecule, increases in endothelial permeability are observed. Explanations into the differences between the transport mechanisms of the two molecules are discussed. These experiments show changes in VE cadherin localization due to sickle erythrocyte exposure. This may cause increases in endothelial permeability and an experimental model and preliminary studies are performed. This study provides potential mechanisms to explain the changes in VE cadherin localization and provide suggestions for further studies to test the effect of sickle erythrocytes on endothelial permeability. This work provides a strong foundation for continuing studies on the effects of sickle erythrocytes on endothelial dysfunction within the confines of sickle related complications.

Research has identified a linear relationship between saturated fat intake and colon cancer, and has demonstrated that high fat diets enhance tumorigenesis through elevation of secondary bile acids such as deoxycholic acid (DCA). We and others have shown that DCA can manipulate cell adhesion by decreasing expression of E-cadherin and increasing expression of beta-catenin. We have also shown that DCA significantly reduces EphB2 expression, which regulates cell positioning and segregation. Importantly, vitamin D can reinstate membranous E-cadherin/beta-catenin interactions and increase E-cadherin expression. In the present study, we sought to analyze the effects of DCA and vitamin D (cholecalciferol) treatment on EphB2 in colorectal cancer cells. Pre-treatment with cholecalciferol restored EphB2 expression in a dose-dependent manner, even with combined DCA treatment. This observation may be EGFR-dependent, suggesting that cholecalciferol may antagonize the effects of DCA. Taken together, these results suggest that cholecalciferol may represent an adjuvant therapy for colorectal cancer patients.