The purpose of this study was to answer the following question: What was the perceived value to planners of incorporating information from ecotourists about their perceived needs in the standard system presently being used to plan interpretation? The Ecotourist Needs Assessment (ETNA) process was proposed as an external needs assessment. To exemplify this process, an instrument called Ecotourist Needs Assessment Instrument (ETNAI) was developed to collect input from ecotourists who visited the Malheur National Wildlife Refuge. A case resulted from the process. The ETNAI case was used to obtain planners' opinions about whether ETNA had value in the context of data collection and inventory in interpretive planning. The ETNAI case included developing and validating the ETNAI and providing a procedure for implementing ETNAI. Upon completion of the ETNAI case, an interview guide was developed and administered to interpretive planners. Interpretive planners were asked how they currently plan interpretation and collect information to decide interpretive topics. Other questions dealt with their feelings regarding the usefulness of the ETNA and the data collected using the ETNA. The interpretive planners described the current system and provided information about the proposed system (ETNA). Currently, decisions involving interpretation are based on three factors: 1) money, 2) mandates/missions, and/or 3) management. The interpretive planner chose outside (external) groups except during a master planning process when the general public provided input. The outside groups included: professionals, the public, and recreation providers. The current methods used to collect information were informal or considered casual. When contrasted with the proposed method, the interpretive planners felt the ETNA had value. This was reflected in their suggestions for use: As an evaluation tool after an interpretive program is given to a specific audience. As a method to assess the interpretive needs of visitors and specific audiences for interpretation. As a technique to access visitors and the public, both general and specific. As a mechanism to collect data at public meetings. As a systematic routine to develop interpretation, to provide feedback for further development, and to evaluate interpretation embedded in the site system. As a method to effectively determine the distribution of funds. / Graduation date: 1993

The tourism phenomenon has shifted focus from a purely economic and business development strategy towards sustainable development and community-based tourism. It currently emphasises the importance of responsible tourism development. A growing trend in South Africa and KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) is the promotion for tourists and host destinations to take responsibility for local resources, including cultural and natural resources. As a result, the proliferation of cultural, heritage and natural centred attractions have emerged throughout the province. However, this shift in thinking has not always managed to result in sustainable and successful tourism projects in practice. The academia emphasises the breach that exists in community participation and levels of management in many community-based initiatives. This research project proposes that sustainable tourism development requires a thorough examination of how communities perceive the tourism phenomenon and how they would like to see their own cultural identity represented to tourists. The case study of the Van Reenen community was interspersed with visual research methods in order to elicit a purer response from the local community. It questions what influences people’s perceptions of their collective and individual social identities. This research used conventional interview methods combined with two visual methodologies, namely auto-driven elicitation and photo elicitation. The former removes the researcher from the image-making process and involves the use of photographs or visual art produced by the research subjects in response to a specific question. The latter method is based on the idea of placing a photograph into a research interview and structuring questions around it. The theoretical framework of this study considers cultural self-representation as a tool to enhance community participation which can result in more sustainable and authentic experiences for both the tourists as well as the host community. Referring to the gap which exists in sustainable tourism development, this method can be very productive to increase community tourism knowledge development and participation. The results of this research will enable the local community to produce marketing literature; enable the N3 Toll Concession (Pty) Ltd (the project sponsor) to enhance community-based tourism (CBT) in the area, and inform future projects. The participant data reveals that this particular rural community is substantially influenced by their most immediate surroundings. It can therefore be assumed that the community has a perception which values that their current cultural and natural heritage can be utilised as vehicles for tourism development. The case study identifies its own limitations in not eliciting enough useful data from participant self-analysis. The visual methods used in this study provide tourism development projects with a tool to increase community commitment through real involvement as well as constructions of authentically unique products for the tourists. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2012.

Low levels of development, increasing levels of environmental degradation and poverty are features which characterise many rural areas in the Developing World. The socio-economies of these rural communities are primarily founded on the direct utilization of the natural resource base. The challenge faced by rural communities is thus to achieve socio-economic growth and stability in conjunction with environmental conservation and stability. Integrated conservation and development projects (ICDPs) have been applied in underdeveloped areas with the objective of enhancing biodiversity conservation through approaches which attempt to address the needs, constraints and opportunities faced by the rural communities. While successes have been recorded, critical analyses by researchers have found that few projects have met their objectives. This case study in KwaJobe, KwaZulu-Natal, attempts to ascertain the development priorities as identified by the community. The participatory rural appraisal techniques utilized in this study provide a valuable approach for local people to provide information to outsiders, as well as to analyse their own circumstances with reference to natural resource management. The findings of the study indicate that the community is characteristic of many rural communities in underdeveloped areas. The development priorities identified by the community focus on economic and social welfare needs. The presentation of two natural resource based development models, ie, a resource based tourism development and an irrigation development, were used to interpret the development preferences and priorities of the community. From this it was possible to ascertain that the communities development priorities do not include natural resource management or environmental conservation. Development initiatives which rank these criteria as the primary objective do not induce support from the community. Approaches to rural development thus need to focus primarily on the meeting of community identified needs if they are to be accepted and supported by the community. Methods need to be devised to facilitate sustainable development which offer opportunities for environmental conservation, rather than attempting to achieve development via conservation initiatives. There is thus a need for a change in the focus of ICDPs from using conservation initiatives to facilitate rural community development, to a focus which prioritises meeting the development needs identified by the communities. Attempts can then be made to facilitate environmental conservation by means of integrated development and conservation projects (IDCPs). / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1997.

Nature-based tourism is centered on the idea that local communities living within and around protected areas should derive benefits from nature resources. Likewise nature resources will simultaneously benefit from their interaction because the community will develop an understanding and appreciate the importance of conserving nature through various benefits derived. The research focus was on assessing the perception of residents of Chiawa, Zambia, regarding the benefits derived from nature-based tourism. This is the first study of this nature to be conducted in Chiawa. The overall aim of the research study was to examine the perceptions of the Chiawa community of the impacts of nature based tourism and its implications on the livelihood of the Chiawa residents and on the conservation of nature, upon which tourism is anchored. The three specific objectives were:- 1. To examine the perceptions of the community on economic impacts of nature based tourism on the livelihood of Chiawa Community. 2. To examine the perceptions of the community of the effects of nature based tourism benefits on support towards conservation of nature in Chiawa and Lower Zambezi National Park. 3. To examine perceptions on nature and extent of constraints limiting household participation in nature-based tourism. Various research methods were used to address the objectives of this study. These methods included quantitative and qualitative research techniques. Structured questionnaires with multiple choice type answers were administered to households and safari operators to collect data. These techniques were complemented with five focus group meetings conducted in village action groups (VAGs) of Chiawa GMA, and both participant and direct observation techniques were used during household surveys. The elements of analysis of the study looked at various factors that influence the perception of households on tourism benefits and conservation efforts by the community. Elements such as tribe, gender, education, length of stay, age and spatial distribution were analyzed. Elements of analysis from tour operators looked at business types, types of benefits filtering to the community through employment and community projects. It was established during the course of the research that both positive and negative perceptions on the impacts of nature-based tourism on residents of Chiawa GMA exist. However, the few residents who derived benefits from nature based tourism operations were positive and the rest were negative. The perceptions of the respondents on support towards conservation are above average. The study found that the most significant silent factor that may influence negative attitudes or perceptions is high levels of human – wildlife conflicts. This is not surprising considering that farming is the major livelihood strategy for most households. Demographic variables were not found to be useful predictors of perception responses. Several factors were established as limiting to household participation in nature based tourism, these established factors included, lack of working and start up capital, lack of understanding of nature based tourism business, lack of interest and lack of support from tourism agencies. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2010.

The uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park World Heritage Site has significant value including the natural and cultural value such as the production of water, the wilderness and eco-cultural tourism. Situated in the Province of KwaZulu-Natal, in South Africa, this 242 813 ha Park is a national and international asset. There are marketing activities carried out by Ezemvelo KwaZulu-Natal Wildlife (EKZNW); however they are not park specific. Ezemvelo KwaZulu- Natal Wildlife has a number of parks under their management and uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park World Heritage Site is one of these parks. The main aim of this study was to evaluate EKZNW’s current eco-cultural tourism marketing strategy for the uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park World Heritage Site. This was done by achieving the following objectives:- 1. determine the ideal generic marketing strategy for a Protected Area specifically a World Heritage Site; 2. establish the current status of Ezemvelo KwaZulu-Natal Wildlife marketing strategy for the uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park World Heritage Site; 3. conduct a comparative analysis between the ideal strategy and Ezemvelo KwaZulu-Natal Wildlife’s actual strategy for uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park World Heritage Site; 4. based on the comparative analysis, recommend marketing interventions to improve the eco-cultural tourism marketing strategy for uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park World Heritage Site. To fulfil these objectives the research methods used were qualitative in nature because of the type of investigation. Methods used to collect information included a literature review, structured and semi-structured face-to-face interviews, discussions, conducting a SWOT analysis and secondary data analysis. The SWOT analysis was formulated from the interviews but not as a workshop and it was part of the analysis. The results of the study show that the respondents have concerns regarding the marketing of the Site. Currently there is no written eco-cultural marketing strategy for uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park World Heritage Site. However marketing activities limited as they are, are being performed on an ad hoc basis. The Ezemvelo KwaZulu-Natal Wildlife marketing department is too small (three staff) to handle the marketing of all Ezemvelo KwaZulu-Natal Wildlife parks, resulting in uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park World Heritage Site not getting the marketing attention it deserves as an international icon. Scarce resources coupled with internal conflicts, lack of marketing skills, insufficient gathering of marketing information and no external or industry marketing alliances has resulted in minimum marketing exposure for the uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park World Heritage Site. The study concluded that marketing integration and collaboration with all relevant stakeholders is needed. Marketing objectives for the uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park World Heritage Site must be developed. Better profiling of current and potential visitors to maximise revenues is a priority for better future marketing decisions. The brand identity has to be maximised through collaboration with stakeholders and staff. This will lead to sustainable marketing of the Site which takes into consideration biodiversity conservation. This ensures that conservation objectives are not compromised. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2011.

In many parts of South Africa, a growing trend to convert traditional commercial agricultural farms to wildlife-based forms of land use is having significant but largely unexplored impacts on farm dwellers and neighbouring rural communities. This trend is very evident in the province of KwaZulu-Natal where there has been a significant shift in rural landscapes as land is being “rehabilitated”, from commercial cattle farming in particular, and developed into Private Game Reserves (PGRs). This research forms part of a larger project funded by Southern African Programme for Alternatives in Development (SANPAD). One of the research partners was the Association For Rural Advancement (AFRA), an independent Non-Governmental Organisation working on land rights and agrarian reform in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. AFRA‟s work focuses on black rural people whose rights to land have been undermined, whose tenure is insecure, and who do not have access to sufficient land to fulfil their development aspirations or their basic needs. Very little research has, however, been conducted on the large shift in land use in northern KwaZulu-Natal and how rural communities are being impacted in these areas; a situation this study intends to begin to remedy. This study focuses on the north-eastern area of the province, and in particular the Mkuze region, where the move to create PGRs has significantly changed the social and physical geography of the area. In order to gain a clearer understanding of this phenomenon, research was conducted on the relationship between the tribal/ traditional community of Ingwenya and five surrounding game reserves (namely, Thanda/ Intibane, Mkuze, Phinda, and Kube-Yini). While Mkuze is a state game reserve, created in the early twentieth century, the others are PGRs. The study was both quantitative and qualitative in nature which involved collecting household questionnaire surveys in the community of Ingwenya, in-depth interviews with ex-farm dwellers, questionnaire surveys with the managers of the five PGRs chosen in this study, oral and documentary evidence and participant observation. / Thesis (M.Soc.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2011.

Tourism is the fastest growing economic industry and has become one of the leading sources of growth and development in South Africa. However, tourism is in a constant state of flux requiring continuous research to document and analyse these shifting trends. Since 1999, the iSimangaliso Wetland Park (South Africa’s first World Heritage Site) has been using ecotourism as part of its development and conservation strategy. This has resulted in the shift in tourism from what used to be a fishing destination prior 1999 to its current form as a premier ecotourism destination. The aim is to analyse and document the shift from mass tourism to ecotourism in iSimangaliso Wetland Park, using the Eastern Shores as a case study. Through modernism and postmodernism tourism discourse, this dissertation analyses visitor characteristics, behaviour and perceptions of both tourists and tourism businesses over time in an attempt to describe and explain the tourism shift on the Eastern Shores. This research reveals that there has been a distinct tourism shift in the Park from the ‘mass’ fishermen created by the Fordist mode of mass and standardised production to the more ecologically inclined ‘niche’ tourist where the de-differentiation of postmodernism has created diversified forms of tourists and tourism products. Within these broad classifications, this research has discovered the existence of more nuanced tourist profiles. Mass tourists range from the ‘sun, sea, sand, sex and sangria’ tourist to fishermen. Ecotourists on the other hand range from the casual or mainstream ecotourist who practices a shallow form of ecotourism to the dedicated ecotourist whose activities promote conservation and sustainable development allowing for a deeper form of ecotourism. Further, on the Eastern Shores, domestic coastal ‘mass tourists’ have also become more ecologically inclined. Previously these tourists would come for one activity, that is, to relax on the beach or fish. At present, the majority of these tourists now also pursue nature based activities, adventure tourism and/or sightseeing. The changes in the tourists visiting the Eastern Shores are representative of the global shifts in tourism that are currently taking place. Tourism is constantly evolving as part of global capitalism and will continue to shape tourism in iSimangaliso Wetland Park. / Thesis (M.Soc.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2013.

The purpose of this creative project was to create a diffuse system of tourism destination nodes and corridors that have various niche uses throughout Warren County. This diffuse approach utilized an eco-tourism pattern language that allows for less strain and maximum benefits on natural resources and cultural heritage. Theoretical knowledge on assessing eco-tourism principles and interpreting cultural landscapes was used to assess significant resources in Warren County. The significant natural resources such as water resources, wildlife corridors, topographic features, and vegetation were inventoried and analyzed. Cultural histories of the Seneca, pioneer trading, industrial practices, and Amish lifestyles were interpreted. Current plans of development along the Allegheny riverfront, MusariumTM, Northwest Pennsylvania Greenways, and the Allegheny Wilds, were considered, adapted, and critiqued for their usefulness to tourism development in the county. The consideration of these current plans, coupled with the frameworks of Christopher Alexander's Pattern Language, interpretations of cultural landscapes, and current GIS technologies were used in the creation of general eco-tourism pattern language that was applied to tourism destination nodes, corridors, and activity centers in Warren County.The city of warren serves as the county's central destination hub, from which corridors connect destination nodes that extend radially from the city. The nodes consist of the Kinzua Reservoir, the town of Tidioute, Chapman State Park, Buckaloons-Cornplanter State Forest, and the towns of Akeley-Scandia. Each of these destination nodes will be developed to represent and emphasize specific sub-cultures historically found in that area. / Department of Landscape Architecture

Rapidly changing oceans are threatening coastal ecosystems and require effective conservation efforts. On the Andaman coast of Thailand, SCUBA diving tourism is one activity that can aid conservation by providing incentives to conserve, rather than exploit, natural resources such as coral reefs. In 2011, the largest ever recorded coral bleaching event prompted the closure of many of the countries’ most popular dive sites to allow coral to recover. This unprecedented move and the resulting drop in dive tourists demonstrated the vast changes that could confront the dive industry in the face of climate change, altering its role as a vital activity within Thailand as well as its potential as a conservation tool along the coast. Ensuring the sustainability of Thailand’s coral reefs requires that we consider changes to both these components. This thesis tracks changes to the sustainability of diving as a conservation tool and predicts how these trends might vary in a future with continued climate change impacts. This research uses a wildlife tourism model proposed by Duffus and Dearden (1990) as a theoretical framework to examine changes to diving over time. A standardized questionnaire was administered to diving tourists in 2012 and compared against a similar study completed in 2000 to evaluate development and shifting sustainability of diving. Additionally, the ecotourism values and climate change perceptions of divers were measured to explore the present and future conservation potential. This work found that the conservation value of the dive industry has declined and will continue to do so without management interventions. Specifically, the specialization level of divers has declined between the years, yielding a population that has low skill level, generalized motivations, few ecotourism values, is easily satisfied, and spend less money than divers in 2000. Currently, there are many niche companies that all cater to mainstream tourists. However, within this broad industry, this research identified only one diving company that practices all of The International Ecotourism Societies’ principles for ecotourism operators, suggesting that diving on the Andaman coast is not an ecotourism industry. We anticipate that in the face of continuing climate change impacts, there will be a significant loss in clientele, but demand for diving will remain within the generalist divers on the Andaman coast. These findings provide clear evidence for shifting baselines, a phenomenon that will exacerbate declines in the conservation potential of the industry. Despite this, our results show that most divers are concerned about the impacts of climate change and are interested in learning about it, suggesting that there is potential to increase the educational value of the dive industry, and simultaneously boost its conservation contributions. To do so will require the efforts of both protected area managers and dive operators. / Graduate / 0366 / 0814 / 0768

This thesis explores the ways community-based ecotourism development in the Bouma National Heritage Park was negotiated at the nexus of Western entrepreneurship and the vanua, an indigenous epistemology. In 1990, the Bouma tribe of Taveuni, Fiji established the Bouma National Heritage Park. A growing dependence on the market economy and a desire to find an economic alternative to commercial logging on their communally-tenured land, led to their decision to approach the New Zealand government for assistance to establish the Park. The four villages involved have since developed their own community-based ecotourism enterprises. Despite receiving first place in a British Airways Tourism for Tomorrow Award category in 2002, there was a growing sense of social dysfunction in Bouma during the research period. According to my participants, this was partly due to the community-based ecotourism development process which had paid little attention to the vanua. Largely through talanoa as discussion, the people of Bouma have become increasingly conscious of references to the vanua values in their own evaluation and management of the projects. This thesis draws on Tim Ingold’s (2000) ‘taskscapes’ as, like the vanua, they relationally link humans with other elements of the environment within their landscape. This contrasts with a common Western epistemological approach of treating humans as independent of other cosmological and physical elements and as positioned against the landscape. Largely due to its communal nature, it may be argued that the vanua is incompatible with values associated with Bouma’s Western, capitalist-based ecotourism models. However, in this thesis I argue that despite numerous obstacles, the Bouma National Heritage Park is one example of a tribe’s endeavours to culturally hybridise the vanua with entrepreneurship to create a locally meaningful form of indigenous entrepreneurship for the wellbeing of its people. The Bouma people call this hybrid ‘business va’avanua’. Informal talanoa is presented in this thesis as a potential tool for political agency in negotiating issues surrounding community-based ecotourism and business va’avanua.