In the wake of events like the COVID-19 pandemic, the storming of the Capitol, and the Russian invasion of Ukraine, it’s time to start labeling misinformation for what it is: a negative externality to society. The spillover effects from the proliferation of mis- and disinformation have the potential to negatively impact the institution of democracy, civic engagement, and downstream health outcomes. Put simply, to understand the misinformation problem is to understand its complexities, its pitfalls, and its motivations. Taken as a whole, this paper articulates the need for a divergence from conventional economic theory on efficiency to a pro-social, welfare-based approach to internalization efforts. In doing so, this analysis presents a full-scale characterization of misinformation as a negative externality, starting with the reorganization of traditional microeconomic theory, followed by a platform-by-platform evaluation of various internalization strategies and evidence from the literature on the impacts of misinformation, and concluding with a commentary on potential remediation approaches. / Thesis ( BA ) — Boston College, 2022 . / Submitted to: Boston College. College of Arts and Sciences . / Discipline: Departmental Honors . / Discipline: Economics .

Thesis advisor: Thomas Wesner / In the wake of events like the COVID-19 pandemic, the storming of the Capitol, and the Russian invasion of Ukraine, it’s time to start labeling misinformation for what it is: a negative externality to society. The spillover effects from the proliferation of mis- and disinformation have the potential to negatively impact the institution of democracy, civic engagement, and downstream health outcomes. Put simply, to understand the misinformation problem is to understand its complexities, its pitfalls, and its motivations. Taken as a whole, this paper articulates the need for a divergence from conventional economic theory on efficiency to a pro-social, welfare-based approach to internalization efforts. In doing so, this analysis presents a full-scale characterization of misinformation as a negative externality, starting with the reorganization of traditional microeconomic theory, followed by a platform-by-platform evaluation of various internalization strategies and evidence from the literature on the impacts of misinformation, and concluding with a commentary on potential remediation approaches. / Thesis (BA) — Boston College, 2022. / Submitted to: Boston College. College of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Departmental Honors. / Discipline: Economics.

No / This paper examines the concept of global public goods (GPGs) and in that context explores the extent of aid (ODA) presently being diverted to GPG provision and whether such diversion skews aid-flows towards some recipients. These are examined on the basis of OECD data for the late 1990s. The main argument of this paper is that ODA should not be used for financing GPG provision by developing countries. Instead, it is suggested that other sources of financing the provision of GPGs should be developed keeping in view the various technologies by which the GPGs can be produced and design principles for supra-national institutions. Various arguments from Sandler, Barrett and Kanbur are considered. In particular, Kanbur's suggestion of two tensions involving the principles of economies of scale, subsidiarity, economies of scope and specialisation, is explored further.

This research examines how the harvesting behavior of nonindustrial private forest landowners, and their use of forestland for non-timber amenities, is affected by adjacent landowner behavior. The uncertainty an individual landowner has regarding adjacent landowners' preferences, and how the production of non-timber amenities on their own stands relies on the condition of adjacent stocks, is specifically addressed. Economic characterizations of substitutes and complements are employed to investigate the differences in optimal stock levels at the steady state in the production of amenities under various levels of cooperation among landowners. It is shown that there are externalities present when landowners do not coordinate management actions when parcels are spatially interdependent. The effects of spatial interdependencies on landowner behavior are further explored using data from a survey of forest landowners in Central Virginia. Findings suggest that forest landowners are willing to coordinate activities, and such decisions are determined by similar characteristics that function in predicting landowner behavior regarding timber harvesting. Further, landowners' decisions to use own and adjacent parcels were correlated, hinting at the spatial interdependencies of stocks in amenity valuations. Both the theoretical and empirical analyses suggest that the lack of coordination among landowners and its effects on stock management would be best addressed through the use of incentives to drive spatially efficient outcomes. / Ph. D.

No / The OECD led BEPS project attempts key changes to the international tax standards to limit harmful tax avoidance. First, it is found that calls for the BEPS project are based on arguments (illicit financial flows and tax competition) that are supported by limited evidence and hence may not offer much fiscal gain to the developing countries. Second, it is found that the BEPS project would, through information sharing, further limit the fiscal jurisdiction of capital importing states. Further it is found that tax competition, even if existing in a limited form, is a result of the international tax architecture and the externalities caused by it. In fact, it is seen that the MNCs actually reduce the inefficiencies created by this tax architecture and thereby reduce transaction costs. By agreeing to the BEPS agenda of information sharing the developing countries would be paying the cost of internalising the externality.

The network externality function plays a very important role in the study of economic network industries. Moreover, the consumer group dynamic interactions coupled with network externality concept is going to play a dominant role in the network goods in the 21st century. The existing literature is stemmed on a choice of externality function with certain quantitative properties. The utility function coupled with the network externality function is used to investigate static properties of rational equilibrium. The aim of this work is to systematically initiate a development of quantitative effects of the concept of network externality and its influence on the characteristics of network market equilibrium. We introduce several basic concepts, notably, network externality process and network goods. Formulating a principle of network externality, we developed a mathematical dynamic model (1) for the network externality process. A closed form solution of the mathematical model was determined and analyzed (2). The presented qualitative and quantitative analysis provides a systematic and unified way of constructing the existing network externality function. The solution process is called "Generalized Network Externality Function (GNEF)". Moreover, our study of quantitative description, parametric representation of attributes and sensitivity analysis of network externality process provides a tool for planning, policy and performance for network goods (3). In the absence of desired data set, we presented an illustration to exhibit the significance of GNEF. We used two types of data sets on the US banking asset and deposit. Employing nonlinear regression methods and data sets, we developed statistical models for the US banking asset and deposit, and constructed two normalized the US banking deposit models (4). Finally, using the concept of theory of relative growth and GNEF (4), we developed two dynamic models for the network externality for the US banking asset with respect to the US banking deposit as a financial market share (5). Incorporating the GNEF (2) in the consumer utility function, a concept of market share adjustment function is introduced and utilized to develop dynamic models for existing rational and static expectation processes (6). In fact, the role and scope of dynamic models of market share adjustment process are extended to the well-known adaptive expectation and its extension process (7). Using a fixed point theorem and the method of upper and lower solutions of discrete time processes, the existence of equilibrium states of developed dynamic models of market share adjustment processes are established in a systematic way (8). Furthermore, the qualitative properties (stability and oscillatory) of equilibrium states are investigated in terms of model and speed of adjustment parameters. Moreover, the system parameter space is decomposed according to qualitative properties (stability, instability and oscillatory) and the type of expectation processes. Very recently, the idea of local network externality is utilized to characterize the rational equilibrium (under fulfilled expectation assumptions). From the study on two-scale network dynamic model of human mobility process an eco-socio-culture interactions, we note that heterogeneity in the network goods consumer community generates a local network externality. Furthermore, dynamic models of adaptive expectation processes (6,7) for network goods provide tool to extend the characterization of rational equilibrium study to static, current and lagged adaptive types equilibriums. Here, we treat the consumer decision to be a dynamic process. We formulate a dynamic structural representation of a consumer network structure, structure of utility function and decision rule under the influence of local network externality concept (9). For the consumer network structure, we generalize the one-dimensional Hotelling location line model to multi-dimensional location (10). This formulation generates a mathematical model for a consumer decision dynamic process (11). The byproduct of the dynamic model leads to an agent-based simulation model (12). The simulation model is employed to investigate different types of consumer decision dynamic market equilibriums. Moreover, prototype illustrations are given to exhibit the association between network attributes and its market equilibriums. We extend the work of two firms (duopoly) into multi-firms (oligopoly and monopolistic competition). This work shed light on the policies for manager to meet performance goal of their firm in network goods industry. In future, we propose to extend this work to incorporate random fluctuations, to remove restrictions and the local and global economic framework in the 21st century.

某種經濟行為的結果，影響了不相干的第三者，就產生了外部效果 （EXTERNALITY） ，外部效果雖有正有負，但環境污染是屬負的外部效果，本文即以負的外部效果為探 討範圍。 一九六○年代，經濟學家目睹當時環境日趨惡化，以及公害問題的不斷發生，而在此 環境危機下卻沒有適當的「價格」誘因使污染減少，因此，當時的經濟學家除仍致力 於環境污染發生問題之研究外，而對解決環境問題之公共政策亦逐漸重視而一併討論 著，而外部效果解決之途徑正與公共政策息息相關。 早在一九六○年前MARSHALL和PIGOU 即曾提出以租稅方式來解決外部效果問題，此即 為著名的皮古稅（PIGOVIAN TAX），然近年來，皮古稅無論在理論上或政策實施上均 遭受甚多的質疑，因此，取而代之如：直接控制（DIRECT CONTROL），補貼（SUBSID Y） ，出售污染權（MARKETABLE EMISSION PERMIT），等解決外部效果之途徑正逐漸 的被重視而熱絡的討論著。 近期，公害問題日趨嚴重，環境問題亦愈受重視，本文即是從外部效果之定義及其發 生之原因為探討之開始，進而對外部效果解決途徑逐一介紹，最後再將各外部效果解 決途徑予以詳加比較，本文之目的，即是在各種解決途徑之比較中，若能理出一些脈 絡，當能成為今日環境政策粗淺之參考。

The thesis deals with harm reduction in drug addition (damage reducing, next short cut HR) its effectiveness on the world and especially in the Czech Republic. At the beginning there is explained the term HR in drug addition, why did it originate, what does it involve and what are the opinions of the other states about it, mentioned in foreign studies, and economic theory. The main focus dedicates needle exchange programs in lowtreshold centres, in field programs and its additional services -- syringe vending machines, fixed/mobile vans. Next I concentrate on the different general view of the effectivenes analysis, particularly of CEA, CBA, CMA and CUA. The continuous part concerns about situation HR in the Czech Republic, mainly about NEPs and SVMs conducted by Progressive o.s. Thanks to performed questionnaire and other datas from Progressive o.s. I apply effectiveness analysis by using of the appropriate method. At the end I summarize results, I evaluace effectiveness of the services and I suggest possible recommendation for teh Czech Republic in HR.

Attachée à la justification patronale, l’exigence d’objectivité est nécessaire pour lutter contre l’exercice arbitraire du pouvoir de l’employeur dès lors qu’elle oblige ce dernier à bannir ses opinions personnelles des motifs invoqués au soutien d’une mesure de gestion du personnel. Par conséquent, l’employeur doit fonder sa décision sur des prémisses factuelles, indépendantes de son pouvoir discrétionnaire, susceptibles d’être prouvées. Il en va ainsi en matière de licenciement, d’évaluation des qualités professionnelles, comme de toute mesure de différenciation. Toutefois, cette exigence s’avère également ambivalente dès lors qu’elle peut être instrumentalisée par l’employeur pour restreindre les droits et libertés des salariés au nom de l’intérêt de l’entreprise ou de la défense d’intérêts catégoriels particuliers. Un tel usage de l’exigence est d’autant plus aisé que le droit du travail adopte une conception peu rigoureuse de l’objectivité. Il est donc nécessaire d’éprouver la mesure de gestion du personnel à l’aune d’exigences autres, que celle que justifie le fonctionnement de l’entreprise. En fin de compte, la portée de l’exigence d’objectivité doit être relativisée. / Any employer’s decision has to meet the requirement of objectivity, implying that his power cannot be arbitrary, i.e. the employer is prohibited to base any decision on his own personal views. Thus, the employer has to base each decision, outside his discretionary power, on provable factual premises. The objectivity test applies to vocationnal assesment, dismissal, and differenciation between employees. However, the objectivity test is ambivalent as some employers exploit this requirement to restrict employees’ fundamental rights in the name of the company’s interests or some other specific interests. This is all the more easy as judges’ control on employer’s objectiveness is rather loose. Therefore, employers’ staff management have to be scrutinisied on some other legal grounds. On the whole the objectivity test has rather a relative importance.

Esta pesquisa objetivou a avaliação de custos de energia elétrica no bombeamento de poços, em área de intensa explotação das águas subterrâneas do Sistema Aquífero Bauru (SAB), em São José do Rio Preto - SP (SJRP) e foi conduzida em sinergia com uma abordagem multifocal de avaliação como ferramenta à gestão do uso das águas subterrâneas em áreas urbanas. A área de estudo, com 728 km2 , abrange quase totalmente o município, onde o modelo de uso das águas subterrâneas provocou rebaixamentos dos níveis potenciométricos do SAB na zona urbana, evidenciados em modelos numéricos de fluxo subterrâneo. O desenvolvimento desta pesquisa contemplou a seleção, análise e interpretação de dados do cadastro de poços do Departamento de Águas e Energia Elétrica e a geração de mapas de profundidade dos níveis de água, visando à caracterização do uso das águas subterrâneas em SJRP e aos cálculos do consumo de energia elétrica na explotação. As águas subterrâneas do SAB são responsáveis por 64% de todo o suprimento hídrico de SJRP, explotadas por 180 poços de abastecimento público e quase 1.800 poços particulares para usos diversos, segundo a base de dados de 2008. Os poços particulares, na grande maioria não outorgados, respondem por 60% de toda a captação do SAB, evidenciando forte dependência do suprimento às alternativas individuais de infraestrutura hídrica. A comparação entre diferentes cenários de explotação simulados por modelação numérica de fluxo subterrâneo constatou a ocorrência de incrementos no consumo e no custo de energia elétrica na explotação, caracterizando a externalidade decorrente do modelo de uso das águas subterrâneas do SAB em SJRP a todos os usuários; e também o aumento da despesa com energia na captação dos poços públicos provocado por influência da captação dos poços particulares, caracterizando a externalidade gerada pelo uso privado à coletividade. Avaliou-se também que os sistemas de bombeamento instalados nos poços possuem baixo rendimento, demandando maior consumo de energia na explotação de água. Esta pesquisa concluiu que ocorre a superexplotação do SAB na zona urbana de SJRP, porém, com a possibilidade de ser mitigada com o adequado manejo das disponibilidades hídricas subterrâneas adjacentes ao perímetro urbano. / This research aimed to evaluate the cost of electrical energy involving the pumping of wells in areas of intensive groundwater use in Bauru Aquifer System (BAS), in São José do Rio Preto - SP (SJRP) and it was conducted as a focusing contribute on management tool for the groundwater use in urban areas. The study area, 728 km2 , means almost the whole municipal total area, in which the pumping of groundwater has caused aquifer drawdown effects on BAS in the urban area, as it is evidenced by groundwater flow mathematical models. The development of this resource assembles the selection, analysis and data interpretation of the well registered with the Water Management State Agency besides designing of water table depth maps, in order to provide the characterization of the groundwater use in SJRP and the calculation of electrical energy consumption along the exploitation. BAS supplies 64% of groundwater to the whole water supply of SJRP, exploited by 180 municipal wells and almost 1.800 private wells dedicated for several uses, accordingly to the data from 2008. Water supply system is strongly dependable of the private wells that most of them are not licensed. The private wells are responsible for 60% of the total BAS explotation. The comparison between the different exploitation scenery simulated by groundwater flow mathematical models shows the occurrence of electrical energy consumption and cost increments along the exploitation, meaning an externality to all users due BAS groundwater development in SJRP; and also the increment of electrical energy spends for municipal wells caused by the influence of the exploitation of the private wells, meaning an externality caused by the private use to collectivity. It was also analyzed the pumping system installed in the well that has low performance, requiring a greater energy consumption during the water exploitation. This research concluded that occurs an overexploitation of BAS in the urban area of SJRP, however, there are possibilities to mitigate considering the appropriated management of the safe yield in the surroundings of the urban perimeter.