This dissertation examines how managers make cost decisions under significant economic events. The economic events of interests are the economic crisis from 2008 to 2010 and corporate loan financing. The economic crisis caused many firms to experience sales declines and created tremendous pessimism about prospects of sales rebounding in the future. I find that not all firms were affected equally. Sales-down firms exhibit anti-sticky cost behavior during this period; that is, costs are cut back more steeply as sales fall than they increase as sales rise. Such a behavior during the economic crisis is exactly the opposite of the average sticky cost behavior during normal economic periods documented in prior accounting research. This, in turn, implies that net income and cash flows from operations (as percentage of sales) may increase, rather than decrease for sales-down firms during an economic downturn. In the second study, I use a difference-in-difference research design to examine whether and how managers engage in cost management before and after loan financing. I find that managers significantly cut back operating expenses prior to loan financing. However, cost reduction is asymmetric with respect to the direction of sales changes. Compared with firms experiencing sales increases, firms experiencing sales declines reduce costs to a greater extent prior to financing and also exhibit a reversion in the cost level after financing. The reversion in cost level is negatively related to the percentage of financial covenants that are based on earnings. I do not find consistent evidence supporting that managers engage in accrual management, overproduction or asset sales. / Business Administration/Interdisciplinary

No / Using a unique dataset for Egyptian firms, we investigate the relationship between board independence, audit quality and earnings management. We test whether firm-level corporate governance provisions matter in an emerging market setting characterised by weak legal enforcement and inadequate external discipline by the market for corporate control. Our results cast doubt on the notion that a higher ratio of nonexecutive members is associated with lower earnings management. We find that the effect of board independence on earnings management practices is contingent on the levels of ownership held by executive directors and large shareholders, as well as the composition of audit committee. In addition, the results are consistent with the view that high-quality auditors are effective in reducing earnings management.

Annual university rankings produced by mainstream sources, such as U.S. News and World Report, are very popular and viewed as important by a variety of university stakeholders. Consequently, universities expend a great deal of effort in an attempt to ensure they appear in the best possible light. One major component of these ranking systems is the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education, which is partly based on the research expenditures reported by the university. This system provides incentives for administrators at institutions of higher education to make strategic accounting choices, with respect to the classification of research expenditures, to improve the prestige of the university. I first measure the amount of accounting discretion within a university's classification of research expenditures and then test whether discretionary research expenditures impact the prestige of a university. Results indicate that discretionary research expenditures are positively associated with university prestige. Specifically, universities within my sample that have positive discretionary research expenditures have an increased probability of subsequently being classified as a Doctoral University with moderate to high research activity by 5% and 7% respectively. In addition, universities within my sample that had positive discretionary research expenditures experienced increases in their ranking of federal funding received relative to other universities by an average of 20.4 positions. These results are consistent with the concept that universities can make certain discretionary accounting choices which can help improve the prestige of the institution with the goal of obtaining additional sources of funding. / Ph. D. / Annual university rankings produced by mainstream sources, such as U.S. News and World Report, are very popular and viewed as important by a variety of university stakeholders. Consequently, universities expend a great deal of effort in an attempt to ensure they appear in the best possible light. One major component of these ranking systems is the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education, which is partly based on the research expenditures reported by the university. This system provides incentives for administrators at institutions of higher education to make strategic accounting choices, with respect to the reporting of research expenditures, to improve the prestige of the university. I first measure the amount of accounting choice (i.e. accounting discretion) within a university’s report of research expenditures and then test whether accounting discretion impacts the prestige of a university. Results indicate that accounting discretion is positively associated with university prestige. I also find a positive association between university accounting discretion and subsequent increases in federal funding received relative to other universities. These results are consistent with the concept that universities can make certain accounting choices which can help improve the prestige of the institution with the goal of obtaining additional sources of funding.

Denna studie fokuserar på effekten av IFRS/IAS på earnings management. Huvudsyftet är att identifiera earnings management före och efter införandet av IFRS/IAS för att klargöra om de internationella redovisningsstandarderna har påverkat förekomsten av resultatmanipulering inom svenska börsbolag. Perioden som studeras är åren 2002-2008. För att identifiera earnings management används den modifierade Jones-modellen som går ut på att detektera förekomsten av godtyckliga periodiseringar som ett mått på resultatmanipulering. Vi kontrollerar även för om variablerna storlek och bransch kan förklara förekomsten av företeelsen före och efter införandet av IFRS/IAS. Urvalet är de 144 företag som var listade på Small-Cap, Mid-Cap och Large-Cap på stockholmsbörsen november 2011. Resultaten visar att IFRS/IAS inte har påverkat earnings management då förekomsten av godtyckliga periodiseringar förhåller sig relativt konstant under tidsperioden. Slutligen kunde vi finna resultat som visar att förekomsten av earnings management förekommer i större utsträckning bland företagen på Small-Cap och i IT- & Telekombranschen. / This study focuses on the effect of IFRS/IAS on earnings management. The main purpose is to identify earnings management before and after the adoption of IFRS/IAS to clarify if the international accounting standards have had any effect on the presence of earnings management in Swedish listed companies. The studied period is the years between 2002 and 2008. In order to identify earnings management we use the modified Jones-model which detects the presence of discretionary accruals as a measure of earnings management. Other variables such as firm-size and industry are also examined to see whether these firm specific features may explain the amount of discretionary accruals before and after implementation of IFRS/IAS. We consider a sample of 144 firms listed on Small-Cap, Mid-Cap and Large-Cap on the Swedish stock market in November 2011. The results show that IFRS/IAS has had no effect on earnings management, as discretionary accruals have remained relatively constant during the period before and after the adoption. Finally, the results indicate that firms listed on Small-Cap tend to manage earnings in a larger proportion than firms listed on Mid-Cap and Large-Cap. Also, there seems to occur significant more earnings management in firms of the Information Technology & Telecom Industry.

Introduktion/Problembakgrund: Earnings management (EM) är ett problem för både det enskilda företaget och samhället. EM innebär att företagsledningen manipulerar resultatet i syfte att vilseleda externa intressenter. Konsekvenserna av EM är ett minskat förtroende för den finansiella rapporteringen, vilket resulterar i en ineffektiv kapitalallokering. Tidigare studier i Nya Zeeland har konstaterat att sammansättningen av fastighetsportföljen påverkar benägenheten till EM. Däremot går resultatet inte att generalisera i andra länder, eftersom det finns skillnader i lagstiftningen. Det är därför av intresse att genomföra en studie för svenska börsnoterade fastighetsföretag. Det behövs för att skapa ett ramverk, vilket kan hjälpa externa intressenter att förstå, upptäcka och förebygga beteenden som ger upphov till EM. Syfte: Studiens syfte är att undersöka hur fastighetsportföljen påverkar benägenheten till EM hos svenska börsnoterade fastighetsföretag. Vidare har studien även som syfte att kartlägga sammansättning av företagens fastighetsportföljer. Estimera EM för fastighetsföretagen och studera hur fastighetsportföljen påverkar benägenheten till EM. Studien har även som syfte att undersöka hur EM påverkar fastighetsföretagens finansiella rapportering i avseende på tillförlitlighet och relevans. Teori: De teorier som använts i studien baseras på tidigare EM-studier, orsaken är att vi avser att använda de mest relevanta teorierna för att besvara studiens problemformulering. Studiens teoretiska referensram omfattas av; 1) EM 2) informations asymmetri, 3) earnings quality, 4) principal-agent teorin, 5) stewardship teorin, 6) signaleringsteorin och 7) prospect-teorin. Vidare beskrivs fastighetsmarknaden. Metod/Data: Studien baseras på en kvantitativ metod, en deduktiv ansats och ett objektivistiskt synsätt. Vi har inhämtat data från finansiella databaser och från fastighetsföretagens finansiella rapporter. I de finansiella rapporterna har vi manuellt inhämtat data för sammansättningen av fastighetsportföljerna utifrån fastighetskategori och fastighetsregion under åren 2005-2013. Vidare har vi skattat två kategorier av EM, accruals management (AM) och real activities manipulation (RAM). Vi har sedan skattat fastighetsportföljens inverkan på benägenheten till EM. Resultat/analys: Skattningarna av AM och RAM är i likhet med tidigare studier. Vidare tenderar fastighetsportföljen utifrån fastighetskategori att uppvisa flertal signifikanta resultat i jämförelse med fastighetsportföljen som baseras på fastighetsregion. Sammansättningen av företagens fastighetsportföljer tenderar att utgå ifrån en fastighetskategori i en fastighetsregion, vilket innebär att fastighetsföretagen tenderar att förvalta, äga och utveckla en viss fastighetskategori i en viss region. Slutsatser: I studien har vi kommit fram till att fastighetsportföljen tenderar att påverkar benägenheten till EM. Det innebär att traditionella teorier inom EM även bör beakta att sammansättningen av fastighetsportföljen påverkar benägenheten till EM. Utifrån resultatet konstaterar vi att tillförlitlighet och relevans i den finansiella rapporteringen minskar. Studiens resultat kan förklaras utifrån fastighetsrelaterade marknadsfaktorer.

In the first essay, I examine the association between auditor industry specialization and earnings management choices. Prior research suggests that industry specialist auditors constrain accounting-based earnings management. But such actions may cause client companies to seek alternative means to manage earnings. Specifically, companies that hire industry specialist auditors may alter operating decisions to meet earnings targets, referred to as real activities manipulation. This essay investigates whether clients of industry specialist auditors that have an incentive to manage earnings are constrained from managing earnings through accruals manipulation and, therefore, are more likely to engage in real activities manipulation. Further, I examine whether operating performance declines for firms suspected of real activities manipulation. My findings indicate that clients of industry specialist auditors with incentives to manage earnings have lower absolute value of accruals relative to firms with incentives to manage earnings that do not hire industry specialist auditors. These clients of industry specialist auditors are also more likely to engage in real activities manipulation, suggesting this is a possible unintended consequence of hiring an industry specialist auditor. I also document evidence that firms suspected of real activities manipulation have lower future operating performance relative to firms not suspected of real activities manipulation. In the second essay, I examine the association between the tightness of accounting standards and earnings management choices. Prior studies suggest that managers switch from accounting-based earnings management to real activities manipulation in response to tightening accounting standards. My study investigates this line of reasoning. I develop an analytical model and conduct an experimental examination of the effect of flexibility of accounting standards under different institutional environments. I find that managers switch from accounting-based earnings management to real activities manipulation with tightening accounting standards only when the institutional investors have a short-term investment horizon. In contrast, when managers are monitored by institutional investors with a long-term investment horizon, they do not engage in such behavior.

In this thesis, I examine earnings management issues in the UK context. The thesis consists of three essays. The first chapter investigates whether managers base their trade-off decisions among real earnings management, accruals-based earnings management, and classification shifting, on the costs, constraints and timing of each strategy in the UK. The empirical evidence suggests that some, but not all, costs and constraints play a role in managers’ trade-off decisions. Further, contrasting between firms that are most likely to have manipulated earnings and firms that are not likely to have manipulated earnings, I find no difference in the relation of constraints towards all earnings management forms. This indicates that cost and constraints do not capture entirely what they are designed to, in the first place. Finally, I document evidence that is consistent with managers using real and accruals-based earnings management as substitutes but fail to find evidence that classification shifting acts as a substitute. The second essay studies the effect of income smoothing via accruals-based and real earnings management on the relationship between current stock returns, current earnings and future earnings. I measure income smoothing as the contemporaneous correlation between changes in earnings management proxies and pre-managed income. Using a sample of non-financial publicly listed firms in the UK, I show that both accruals-based and real income smoothing measures are associated with significantly positive share price anticipation of earnings. These results are robust to different stock returns specifications, income smoothing measure calculations, abnormal accruals models and accumulation periods of stock returns. In the third and final essay, I investigate the impact of the level of accruals-based and real earnings management on measures of the amount of performance commentary in annual reports for a large sample of UK public firms. I use automated textual analysis to construct disclosure scores based on the amount of performance and causal commentary. The results suggest that firms with higher levels of earnings management have lower levels of disclosure of performance and causal commentary. The presence of bad news for the firm (missed analyst forecast, underperformance or earnings decline) affects the relationship between disclosure and accruals-based earnings management but not the relationship between disclosure and real earnings management.

Purpose: The purpose of this thesis is to explain how the implementation of IFRS 16 Leaseshas affected how publicly listed firms on the Scandinavian stock exchange markets useearnings management activities. Methodology: This thesis has used a quantitative method using a deductive approach with ageneral positivistic philosophy. The database Datastream, provided via Jönköping University,was used in the data collection. To analyze the data, a Pearson and Spearman’s Rho correlationwas conducted, as well as a multiple linear regression analysis. Findings: The findings suggest that operating leasing has not been used as a substitute to otherkinds of earnings management. Further, Scandinavian public companies show no increasedincentive to use income increasing earnings management via discretionary accruals. Moreover,the findings also show that the implementation of IFRS 16 Leases does not appear to have hadas incremental effects on the Scandinavian public companies as initially expected. Theoretical perspectives: The thesis uses earlier literature within earnings management, aswell as the Agency theory, the Positive accounting theory, and the Signaling theory to enablean explanation to how IFRS 16 Leases has affected how publicly listed firms on theScandinavian stock exchange markets use earnings management activities.

The topic of intangible assets in relation to earnings management has been a debated subject for a long time. Different aspects of intangible assets have been thoroughly examined in relationship to earnings management by scholars over the years whether it’s about goodwill from business acquisition, recognition of intangible assets, timely impairments and so on. The authors found from their literature review that there was a knowledge gap when it came to intangible assets as most studies have focused on one part of the intangible assets and that has usually been goodwill. The theoretical framework consists of different theories which are explained and discussed in how they can relate to and give incentives for engaging with earnings management. This can range from opportunistic managers trying to reach bonus goals to pressure from within the company or from other stakeholders to an intent to reach the market expectations for the company. The purpose for this thesis is to examine the relationship if a larger proportion of intangible assets increases the risk for earnings management. In order to do this the authors will use an economical model to measure accruals earnings management. The connection between intangible assets and earnings management is a well threaded area where most results point towards a positive correlation. However, as far as the authors of this study can see no research has been done in a larger geographical context. This thesis aims to fill the gap of a larger geographical area. This has been done by examining publicly listed firms in the European Union. The European Union was chosen since it was a good opportunity to check this relationship over a larger geographical area and it is also suitable since it is mandatory that all publicly listed firms within the European Union region use the same accounting standard (IFRS) which makes it possible to do comparisons. This research has found evidence for a negative correlation between intangible assets and earnings management, this result is contrary to most other studies and therefore shines a light on a possible bias on the earlier research in this area. It could possibly be an indication of income minimizing and/or income smoothing when viewed through the lens of agency theory since managers viewed from that want to reach a desired result to trigger larger bonuses and promotions for him/herself. Aggressive depreciations of intangible assets and goodwill could be done to reach expected results and trigger higher bonuses. When it comes to the shareholder theory there is a possibility that this thesis does not capture it fully since the goal for the shareholder theory is to maximize the net present value and the closest proxy for that in this thesis is ROA which was shown to have a positive correlation to earnings management but not on a significant level. Positive accounting theory gives weight to the agency theory when it comes to our findings since it states that managers act in their own self-interest and choose accounting methods that allow them to reach those goals. This is a quantitative cross-sectional study consisting of 6373 observations that has been collected over a five-year period (2016-2020) from a financial database (ORBIS). The data has been tested with a standard linear regression analysis and shows significant results.

Syfte: Ekonomiska kriser kan påverka ledningens incitament att manipulera finansiell redovisning. Eftersom varje kris är unik och den ekonomiska nedgången till följd av coronapandemin inträffade relativt nyligen, har forskningen om earnings management under denna kris ännu inte fullt utforskats. Tidigare forskning ger motstridiga resultat, och har brustit i att ta hänsyn till institutionella skillnader mellan länder. Den här studien ämnar att bidra med en specifik institutionell kontext. Syftet med studien är att undersöka hur tillämpningen av earnings management i svenska börsnoterade företag påverkades av coronapandemin.  Metod: Studien tillämpar en kvantitativ metod med deduktiv ansats och en positivistisk syn på kunskap för att undersöka earnings management. I studien tillämpas en etablerad metod, den modifierade Jones-modellen, för att mäta diskretionära periodiseringar. För att pröva hypoteser tillämpas t-test och regressionsanalyser. Finansiell data från börsnoterade företag mellan 2017 och 2021 hämtas från Refinitiv Eikon-databasen och analyseras i SPSS. Resultat och slutsats: Studien finner att coronapandemin inte hade någon signifikant påverkan på omfattningen av earnings management i svenska börsnoterade företag. Resultatmanipulering har dock tillämpats och studien finner att resultaten i svenska börsnoterade företag sänktes genom manipulation under pandemin. Resultaten tyder på att den ökade övervakning som förekommer under kriser inte påverkat företagsledningen till minskad resultatmanipulering utan har fortsatt manipulera resultatet för att erhålla fördelar, som statligt stöd och högre framtida avkastning. Examensarbetets bidrag: Studien är av akademisk nytta eftersom resultaten som erhållits skiljer sig från tidigare studier på området under coronapandemin, och indikerar att kontexten som studien genomförs i påverkar resultatet. Studien är även av praktiskt nytta för att ge företags intressenter en inblick i hur företag i den undersökta kontexten hanterar resultatmanipulation under kriser. Förslag till fortsatt forskning: Framtida forskning behövs för att undersöka om skillnaden i resultatmanipulation under coronapandemin i Europa kan förklaras av rättslig tradition. / Aim: Economic crises can influence management's incentives to manipulate financial reporting. Since each crisis is unique and the economic downturn resulting from the covid pandemic occurred relatively recently, research on earnings management during this crisis has not yet been fully explored. Previous research offers conflicting results and has failed to account for institutional differences between countries. This study aims to provide a specific institutional context. The purpose of the study is to investigate how the application of earnings management in Swedish publicly listed companies was affected by the covid pandemic. Method: The study employs a quantitative method with a deductive approach and a positivist view of knowledge to examine earnings management. An established method, the modified Jones model, is applied in the study to measure discretionary accruals. To test hypotheses, t-tests and regression analyses are conducted. Financial data from publicly listed companies between 2017 and 2021 is obtained from the Refinitiv Eikon database and analyzed using SPSS. Results and conclusions: The study finds that the covid pandemic did not have a significant impact on the extent of earnings management in Swedish publicly listed companies. However, income manipulation has been applied, and the study finds that the results in Swedish publicly listed companies were lowered through manipulation during the pandemic. The results suggest that the increased oversight that occurs during crises has not affected corporate management to reduce income manipulation but has continued to manipulate results to obtain benefits, such as government support and higher future returns. Contribution of the thesis: The study is of academic value because the results obtained differ from previous studies in the field during the covid pandemic, indicating that the context in which the study is conducted affects the outcome. Additionally, the study is of practical utility to provide stakeholders with insights into how companies in the examined context manage income manipulation during crises. Suggestions for future research: Future research is needed to examine whether the difference in income manipulation during the covid pandemic in Europe can be explained by legal tradition.