Resumo: Considerando a importância da compreensão da dinâmica espaço temporal dos componentes do balanço de energia (BE) em escala regional para o gerenciamento de recursos hídrico e o manejo agrícola, o objetivo principal desta tese foi construir e analisar uma série temporal dos componentes do BE adequada às condições de clima subtropical úmido do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul. Para tanto, inicialmente foi avaliada a adequação de modelos de estimativa de BE para o Estado. Nesta etapa foram utilizados produtos MODIS e dados de referência medidos em uma torre micrometeorológica instalada em Cruz Alta – RS, usando valores instantâneos para um período de estudo de 2009 a 2011. Na sequência foi avaliada a adequação dos modelos em representar a variabilidade espacial dos componentes do BE. Nesta etapa foram usados produtos MODIS, dados de reanálise ERA Interim, dados de referência da torre micrometeorológica e dados de estações meteorológicas do INMET, para o mesmo período de estudo. Na última etapa do trabalho foi construída a série temporal dos componentes do BE usando o modelo METRIC, a qual abrangeu um período de 14 anos, de 2002 a 2016. Os resultados demonstraram que os três modelos analisados apresentam coerência com as medidas de referência, sendo as maiores limitações apresentadas pelo modelo SEBAL, as quais se atribui principalmente às condições ecoclimáticas do Estado e a baixa resolução espacial das imagens. Na análise da variabilidade espacial, o modelo METRIC apresentou maior consistência nos resultados e proporcionou maior número de dias com resultados válidos, sendo assim apontado como o mais apto para realização do restante do estudo. A série temporal construída possibilitou a compreensão dos padrões de distribuição espaço temporal dos componentes do BE no estado do Rio Grande do Sul. Há uma marcada sazonalidade nos componentes do BE, com maiores valores no verão e menores no inverno. G (fluxo de calor no solo) é o componente de menor magnitude e sua distribuição espacial e temporal é determinada pela distribuição de Rn (saldo de radiação). Já os componentes LE (fluxo de calor latente) e H (fluxo de calor sensível), são os que mostram magnitude maior e apresentam padrões de distribuição espacial e temporal coerentes com as condições climáticas e com os tipos de uso e cobertura na área de estudo. Observase um padrão inverso, com um gradiente de LE no sentido noroeste para sudeste e para o componente H, no sentido sudeste para noroeste. Sendo estas informações de grande importância para gerenciamento de recursos hídricos em escala regional, para estudos de zoneamento agrícola. / Abstract: Given the importance of understanding the temporal and spatial dynamics of of the energy balance (EB) components in a regional scale for the management of water resources and agricultural, the main objective of this thesis was to construct and analyze a time series of the components of BE appropriate to the subtropical humid climate conditions of the State of Rio Grande do Sul. In order to reach the objective initially, the adequacy of the models for the humid climate conditions was evaluated, in this step we used MODIS data and reference data measured in a micrometeorological tower installed in Cruz Alta - RS. The analyzes performed with instantaneous values and the study period was from 2009 to 2011. The next step evaluate the spatial variability of the BE components, the data used were the MODIS products, ERA Interim reanalysis data, reference data of the micrometeorological tower and INMET meteorological stations, for the same study period. In the last stage the time series of the BE components was constructed from the METRIC model. The period series was 14 years from 2002 to 2016.The results showed that the three models analyzed were consistent with the reference measurements, with the greatest limitations presented by the SEBAL model, which are mainly attributed to the state's eco-climatic conditions and the low spatial resolution of the images In the analysis of the spatial variability, the METRIC model presented greater consistency in the results and provided greater number of days with valid results, this model thus indicated as the most suitable for the rest of the study. The time series constructed allowed us to understand the temporal distribution patterns of BE components in the state of Rio Grande do Sul. There is a marked seasonality in the BE components, with higher values in summer and lower in winter. G is the smallest magnitude component and its spatial and temporal distribution is determined by the Rn distribution. On the other hand, the LE and H components are those that show higher magnitude and present spatial and temporal distribution patterns consistent with the climatic conditions and the types of use and coverage in the study area. An inverse pattern is observed, with a LE gradient from north-west to south-east and for H-component, from southeast to northwest.

Este trabalho apresenta o estudo de um sistema genérico de medição que utiliza o princípio das correntes de Foucault, comumente conhecidas como correntes parasitas. O modelo do sistema é representado como um circuito elétrico equivalente composto por R1 e L1, respectivamente caracterizando a resistência e a indutância do circuito primário, as quais são conhecidas por uma bobina de excitação. Já no secundário, R2 e L2, estão representando a perda ôhmica e a indutância da amostra no qual as correntes parasitas são induzidas, além de outros dois componentes, M indutância mútua dos indutores acoplados e k, coeficiente relacionado ao acoplamento magnético entre os circuitos primário e secundário. A análise tradicionalmente utilizada para este tipo de medição é a avaliação da reflexão da impedância equivalente do circuito secundário representando a amostra no circuito primário. O trabalho analisa as equações de malha do circuito equivalente no domínio da frequência e identifica os parâmetros do modelo. A partir da identificação do sistema realizada com os ensaios experimentais, foi possível descobrir a constante de tempo indutiva τL do sistema. A partir dessa constante, observou-se a variação acentuada da mesma em relação a variação da impedância equivalente. Ainda é apresentada uma estimativa dos valores de R2 e L2 realizada por meio da unificação das informações obtidas com a identificação, aliada com as informações de campo magnético obtidas a partir de um sensor do tipo GMR e pela simulação em um software de elementos finitos COMSOL Multiphysics. / This work presents the study of a generic measurement system that uses the prin- ciple of eddy currents. The system model is represented as an equivalent electric circuit composed of R1 and L1 respectively characterizing the resistance and induc- tance of primary circuit, which are known by an excitation coil. In the secondary, R2 and L2 are representing the ohmic loss and the inductance of the sample in which the eddy currents are induced, in addition two other components, the mutual induc- tance of the coupled inductors and k, coefficient related to the magnetic coupling between the primary and secondary circuits. The analysis traditionally used for this type of measurement is the reflection evaluation of the equivalent impedance of the secondary circuit representing the sample in the primary circuit. The work analyzes the mesh equations of the equivalent circuit in the frequency domain and identifies the parameters of the model. From the identification of the system performed with the experimental tests, it was possible to discover the inductive time constant τL of the system. From this constant, it was observed the sharp variation of the same in relation to the variation of equivalent impedance. An estimate values, R2 and L2 performed by unification of the information obtained with the identification, to- gether with the magnetic field information obtained from a GMR type sensor and by simulation in a finite element software COMSOL Multiphysics.

Avec l’accroissement considérable de la puissance de calcul, les simulations aux grandes échelles (SGE) sont maintenant utilisées de façon routinière dans de nombreuses applications d’ingénierie. Les modèles de combustion usuels utilisés dans les SGE sont le plus souvent basés sur une hypothèse d’équilibre entre le mouvement des structures turbulentes et le plissement de la surface de la flamme. Ils s’écrivent alors sous forme d’expressions algébriques fonctions de grandeurs connues aux échelles résolues ainsi que de paramètres dont l’ajustement est à la charge de l’utilisateur selon la configuration étudiée et les conditions opératoires. Le modèle dynamique récemment développé ajuste automatiquement au cours du calcul les paramètres de modélisation qui peuvent alors dépendre du temps et de l’espace. Cette thèse présente une étude détaillée d’un modèle dynamique pour la simulation aux grandes échelles de la combustion turbulente prémélangée. L’objectif est de caractériser, explorer les avantages et les inconvénients, appliquer et valider le modèle dynamique dans plusieurs configurations. / Large eddy simulation (LES) is currently applied in a wide range of engineering applications. Classical LES combustion models are based on algebraic expressions and assume equilibrium between turbulence and flame wrinkling which is generally not verified in many circumstances as the flame is laminar at early stages and progressively wrinkled by turbulent motions. In practice, this conceptual drawback has a strong consequence: every computation needs its own set of constants, i.e. any small change in the operating conditions or in the geometry requires an adjustment of model parameters. The dynamic model recently developed adjust automatically the flame wrinkling factor from the knowledge of resolved scales. Widely used to describe the unresolved turbulent transport, the dynamic approach remains underexplored in combustion despite its interesting potential. This thesis presents a detailed study of a dynamic wrinkling factor model for large eddy simulation of turbulent premixed combustion. The goal of this thesis is to characterize, unveil pros and cons, apply and validate the dynamic modeling in different flow configurations.

L'assimilation de données en tant qu'outil pour la mécanique des fluides a connu une croissance exponentielle au cours des dernières décennies. La possibilité de combiner des mesures précises mais partielles avec un modèle dynamique complet est précieuse et a de nombreuses applications dans des domaines allant de l'aérodynamique, à la géophysique et à l’aéraulique. Cependant, son utilité reste limitée en raison des contraintes imposées par l'assimilation de données notamment en termes de puissance de calcul, de besoins en mémoire et en informations préalables. Cette thèse tente de remédier aux différentes limites de la procédure d'assimilation pour faciliter plus largement son utilisation en mécanique des fluides. Un obstacle majeur à l'assimilation des données est un coût de calcul prohibitif pour les écoulements complexes. Une modélisation de la turbulence à grande échelle est intégrée à la procédure d'assimilation afin de réduire considérablement la coût de calcul et le temps requis. La nécessité d'une information volumétrique préalable pour l'assimilation est abordée à l'aide d'une nouvelle méthodologie de reconstruction développée et évaluée dans cette thèse. L'algorithme d'optimisation reconstruit les champs 3D à partir d'observations dans deux plans orthogonaux en exploitant l'homogénéité directionnelle. La méthode et ses variantes fonctionnent bien avec des ensembles de données synthétiques et expérimentaux fournissant des reconstructions précises. La méthodologie de reconstruction permet également d’estimer la matrice de covariance d’ébauche indispensable à un algorithme d’assimilation efficace. Tous les ingrédients sont combinés pour effectuer avec succès l'assimilation de données variationnelles d'un écoulement turbulent dans le sillage d'un cylindre à un nombre de Reynolds transitoire. L'algorithme d'assimilation est validé pour des observations volumétriques synthétiques et est évalué sur des observations expérimentales dans deux plans orthogonaux. / Data assimilation as a tool for fluid mechanics has grown exponentially over the last few decades. The ability to combine accurate but partial measurements with a complete dynamical model is invaluable and has numerous applications to fields ranging from aerodynamics, geophysics, and internal ventilation. However, its utility remains limited due to the restrictive requirements for performing data assimilation in the form of computing power, memory, and prior information. This thesis attempts at redressing various limitations of the assimilation procedure in order to facilitate its wider use in fluid mechanics. A major roadblock for data assimilation is the computational cost which is restrictive for all but the simplest of flows. Following along the lines of Joseph Smagorinsky, turbulence modelling through large-eddy simulation is incorporated in to the assimilation procedure to significantly reduce computing power and time required. The requirement for prior volumetric information for assimilation is tackled using a novel reconstruction methodology developed and assessed in this thesis. The snapshot optimisation algorithm reconstructs 3D fields from 2D cross- planar observations by exploiting directional homogeneity. The method and its variants work well with synthetic and experimental data-sets providing accurate reconstructions. The reconstruction methodology also provides the means to estimate the background covariance matrix which is essential for an efficient assimilation algorithm. All the ingredients are combined to perform variational data assimilation of a turbulent wake flow around a cylinder successfully at a transitional Reynolds number. The assimilation algorithm is validated with synthetic volumetric observation and assessed on 2D cross-planar observations emulating experimental data.

Superligas à base de níquel vêm sendo extensivamente utilizadas em diversas aplicações nas indústrias devido ao excelente comportamento mecânico e anticorrosivo. No entanto, essas ligas possuem certas particularidades que levam à necessidade de desenvolvimento de técnicas de inspeção e caracterização metalúrgica, como forma de garantir a integridade estrutural dos componentes fabricados com essas ligas. Neste trabalho, a técnica de correntes parasitas foi aplicada à superligas à base de níquel com duas propostas distintas: 1) Em um primeiro momento foi realizado o estudo da evolução microestrutural da liga Inconel 718 durante o processo de envelhecimento através da combinação do ensaio por correntes parasitas, análise de difração de raios-X, análise metalográfica, medidas de dureza e tamanho de grão. As medidas foram realizadas em amostras submetidas a diferentes ciclos de tratamentos térmicos variando entre 620-1035°C. Os resultados mostraram que as diferentes microestruturas do Inconel 718 têm efeitos distintos na condutividade elétrica quando medidos através da técnica de correntes parasitas. A influência da microestrutura na condutividade pode ser mostrada sendo devido à competição de dois efeitos sobre o espalhamento de elétrons: a purificação da matriz e a morfologia, distribuição e tamanho dos precipitados. A combinação dos valores de dureza e condutividade elétrica provou ser uma forma rápida e prática de determinar o nível de envelhecimento da liga; 2) Em um segundo momento foi desenvolvido um processo de otimização de sensores através de modelagem por elementos finitos (MEF). Através de uma metodologia de otimização, os parâmetros de construção e operação de um sensor foram otimizados para inspeção de defeitos superficiais e subsuperficiais esperados em materiais cladeados com Inconel 625. O sensor com a geometria ótima foi construído e testado a fim de verificar a eficiência do processo de otimização. Uma ótima correlação entre os resultados numéricos e experimentais foi encontrada e o sensor ótimo se mostrou eficiente na inspeção de pequenos defeitos superficiais e subsuperficiais na liga Inconel 625 quando operado nas frequências apropriadas. / Nickel-based superalloys have been extensively used in various industries due to its unique mechanical and corrosion behavior. However, these alloys show particular characteristics which lead to the need for specific inspection and metallurgical characterization techniques in order to ensure the structural integrity of components manufactured from these alloys. In this work , the eddy current technique was applied to nickel-base superalloys with two aims: 1 ) Firstly, the microstructural evolution of Inconel 718 during aging processes has been studied through a combination of eddy current testing, X-ray diffraction analysis, metallography, hardness and grain size measurements. Measurements were carried out in samples subjected to different heat treatment cycles between 620-1035°C. Results show that different microstructures of Inconel 718 have a distinguishable effect on electrical conductivity when this is measured through an appropriately sensitive technique (i.e. eddy current testing). The influence of microstructure on conductivity could be shown to be due to the competition between two effects on the scattering of electrons: matrix purification and precipitate size, distribution and morphology. A combination of hardness values and electrical properties proved to be a fast and practical way of determining the stage of aging of the alloy; 2) An optimization method of eddy current sensor design was developed through finite element modeling (FEM). Through a methodology of optimization, the construction and operation parameters of the sensor were optimized for inspection of superficial and subsuperficial defect, commonly found in weld overlay Inconel 625 claddings. A prototype of this sensor with the optimum geometry was built and tested on blocks identical to those considered in the models in order to verify the efficiency of the optimization process. A very good agreement between numerical and experimental results was found. Moreover, the optimal sensor was efficient to detect small surface and subsurface defects in Inconel 625 when operated at appropriate frequencies.

Made available in DSpace on 2017-07-10T15:14:23Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 DissertacaoMarcosVSchlichting.pdf: 1630212 bytes, checksum: ac35da2426e86a1f7ad159d82eaf4416 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-03-12 / This study evaluated a prototype for heating water for use in the agricultural industry, based on the principle of magnetic induction to generate thermal energy through the eddy currents associated with a mechanical energy source for variation of magnetic flux produced by permanent magnets, configured with four six magnets with and without pole reversal, as compared with the water heating done through a resistive system. Induced systems obtained yield 64.74%, 65.13% and 64.48% for six magnets without inversion (6ISI), four magnets with reverse (4ICI) and four magnets without inversion (4ISI) respectively. The resistive system showed 89.21% efficiency, demonstrating greater viability in the study conditions. / O presente trabalho avaliou um protótipo para aquecimento de água para uso na agroindústria, baseado no princípio da indução magnética para geração de energia térmica através das correntes de Foucault associado a uma fonte de energia mecânica para variação do fluxo magnético produzido por imãs permanentes, configurado com quatro e seis imãs com e sem inversão de polos, em comparação com o aquecimento de água feito através de um sistema resistivo. Os sistemas induzidos obtiveram rendimento de 64,74 %, 65,13 % e 64,48 % para seis imãs sem inversão (6ISI), quatro imãs com inversão (4ICI) e quatro imãs sem inversão (4ISI) respectivamente. O sistemas resistivo apresentou eficiência de 89,21%, demonstrando maior viabilidade nas condições do estudo

This dissertation presents the development and validation of the One Dimensional Turbulence (ODT) multiphase model in the Lagrangian reference frame. ODT is a stochastic model that captures the full range of length and time scales and provides statistical information on fine-scale turbulent-particle mixing and transport at low computational cost. The flow evolution is governed by a deterministic solution of the viscous processes and a stochastic representation of advection through stochastic domain mapping processes. The three algorithms for Lagrangian particle transport are presented within the context of the ODT approach. The Type-I and -C models consider the particle-eddy interaction as instantaneous and continuous change of the particle position and velocity, respectively. The Type-IC model combines the features of the Type-I and -C models. The models are applied to the multiphase flows in the homogeneous decaying turbulence and turbulent round jet. Particle dispersion, dispersion coefficients, and velocity statistics are predicted and compared with experimental data. The models accurately reproduces the experimental data sets and capture particle inertial effects and trajectory crossing effect. A new adjustable particle parameter is introduced into the ODT model, and sensitivity analysis is performed to facilitate parameter estimation and selection. A novel algorithm of the two-way momentum coupling between the particle and carrier phases is developed in the ODT multiphase model. Momentum exchange between the phases is accounted for through particle source terms in the viscous diffusion. The source term is implemented in eddy events through a new kernel transformation and an iterative procedure is required for eddy selection. This model is applied to a particle-laden turbulent jet flow, and simulation results are compared with experimental measurements. The effect of particle addition on the velocities of the gas phase is investigated. The development of particle velocity and particle number distribution are illustrated. The simulation results indicate that the model qualitatively captures the turbulent modulation with the presence of difference particle classes with different solid loadings. The model is then extended to simulate temperature evolution of the particles in a nonisothermal hot jet, in which heat transfer between the particles and gas is considered. The flow is bounded by a wall on the one side of the domain. The simulations are performed over a range of particle inertia and thermal relaxation time scales and different initial particle locations. The present study investigates the post-blast-phase mixing between the particles, the environment that is intended to heat them up, and the ambient environment that dilutes the jet flow. The results indicate that the model can qualitatively predict the important particle statistics in jet flame.

The launch of large stratospheric balloons is highly dependant on the meteorological conditions at ground level, including wind speed. The balloon launch base Esrange Space Center in northern Sweden currently uses forecasts delivered through the Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute to predict opportunities for balloon launches. However the staff at Esrange Space Center experience that the current forecasts are not accurate enough. For that reason the Weather Research and Forecasting model is used to improve the forecast. The model performs a Large Eddy Simulation over the area closest to Esrange Space Center to predict wind speed and turbulence. During twelve hypothetical launch days the improved forecast have an overall accuracy of 93% compared to the old forecast accuracy of 69%. With some improvements and the right computational power the system is thought to be operationally viable.

The eddy covariance (EC) technique was used to measure half hourly fluxes of energy and evaporation from 15 December 2007 to 30 November 2008 at the Scott Research Farm, located 7 km east of Hamilton. Many other supporting measurements of climate and soil variables were also made. The research addressed three objectives: 1. To examine the accuracy of the eddy covariance measurement technique. 2. Understand the surface partitioning of energy and water vapour on a diurnal to annual timescale. 3. Compare measurements of evaporation to methods of estimation. Average energy balance closure at Scott Farm was deficient by 24%, comparable to published studies of up to 30%. Three lysimeter studies were carried out to help verify eddy covariance data. These resulted in the conclusions that; 1) lysimeter pots needed to be deeper to allow for vegetation rooting depths to be encompassed adequately; 2) forcing energy balance closure was not supported by two of the studies (summer and winter); 3) latent heat flux (λE) gap filling of night time EC data during winter over estimated values by about 10 W m-2; and 4) the spring lysimeter study verified eddy covariance measurements including the closure forcing method. Some uncertainty still exists as to the accuracy of both lysimeter and EC methods of evaporation measurement because both methods still have potential biases, however for the purpose of this study, it would appear data are sufficiently accurate to have confidence in results. Energy and water vapour fluxes varied on both a diurnal and seasonal timescale. Diurnally, fluxes were small or negative at night and were highest during the day, usually at solar noon. Seasonally, spring and summer had the highest energy and evaporation fluxes and winter rates were small but tended to exceed available energy supply. Evaporation was constrained by soil moisture availability during summer and by energy availability during winter. Estimated annual evaporation at Scott Farm was 755 mm, 72% of precipitation. Two evaporation models were compared to eddy covariance evaporation (EEC) measurements; the FAO56 Penman-Monteith model (Eo) and the Priestley-Taylor model (EPT). Both models over estimated evaporation during dry conditions and slightly under estimated during winter. The α coefficient that is applied to EPT was not constant and a seasonally adjusted value would be most appropriate. A crop coefficient of 1.13 is needed for Eo measurements during moist conditions. Eo began over estimating evaporation when soil moisture contents dropped below ~44%. A water stress adjustment was applied to both models which improved evaporation estimates, however early onset of drying was not able to be adjusted for. The adjusted Eo model is the most accurate overall, when compared to EEC.

The increasing use of Intelligent Transport System (ITS) can enable very close vehicle spacings which generally results in a net drag reduction for the resulting convoys. The majority of vehicle development has, to date, been for vehicles in isolation, thus the study of interaction effects is becoming increasingly important. The main objective of this research is to investigate the use of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) for understanding convoy aerodynamics and to further the understanding of airflow interaction between vehicles via CFD. In this study, time-averaged characteristics of a simplified, generic passenger vehicle, called the Ahmed car model, after Ahmed et.al (1984) is investigated computationally using the available commercial CFD code, Fluent version 6.1.22. Three different platoon combinations were analysed for the current study which includes a two, three and six model platoons for various rear end configurations of the Ahmed model geometry. Experiments were conducted in RMIT University Industrial Wind Tunnel for analysing the effects of drafting on drag coefficients using two different scales of Ahmed car models. This is an extension to the previous study performed on two 100% scales of Ahmed models (Vino and Watkins, 2004) and the results for both the current and previous experiments were compared using CFD. The CFD proved to be a useful technique since its results compared reasonably well for both the current and the previous experiments on drafting, using Ahmed models of identical (30°) rear slant configurations. However, near critical rear slant angles (~30°) for isolated vehicles some discrepancies were noted. The reasonable validation of experimental results enabled the study to be extended further computationally using CFD, to analyse the effects of inter-vehicle spacing on a platoon of 3 and 6 models for various rear end configurations (between 0° and 40°), in an attempt to provide useful information on vehicle-wake interaction for the Future Generation Intelligent Transport System (FGITS). Critical gaps were identified via CFD for the case of a two, three and six model platoons and the simulations clearly exposed the reasons for these critical gaps. At extremely close proximity, the models experienced more pressure recovery at their rear vertical base, which reduced the drag coefficient. Surprisingly, at some of the close vehicle spacings, the drag coefficients reached values that were higher than that of a vehicle in isolation. This was found due to the high momentum flow impingement to the fore body of the model and was similar to results found in physical experiments. Thus the current CFD analysis revealed that rear slant angle of the model and the inter-vehicle spacing greatly influences the wake structures and ultimately the vehicles aerodynamic drag coefficients in platoons. Even though the current CFD model (Realizable k-B turbulence model) predicted the basic flow structures such as the C-pillar vortices from the rear slant and 2D horse shoe vortices in the model's vertical rear base, the separation bubble on the rear slant that supplies energy to the strong C-pillar vortices was not replicated accurately, which is evidenced from the flow structure analysis. Hence it is recommended for further work, that the study should be extended using the Reynold's stress models or the Large Eddy Simulation (LES) turbulence models for flow structure observation and analysing vortex interactions between the models.