A metodologia LES (Large Eddy Simulation) é uma alternativa viável para a solução numérica de escoamentos de interesse prático em virtude da limitação computacional imposta pela resolução direta de todas as escalas presentes em escoamentos turbulentos. Entretanto, a compreensão detalhada do fenômeno da turbulência é ainda uma tarefa desafiadora em consequência do seu comportamento não linear e alta sensibilidade às condições iniciais e de contorno. Dessa forma, o sucesso de simulações LES está associado à utilização de um código computacional eficiente, com modelagem submalha que represente corretamente a dinâmica do escoamento, juntamente com a especificação de condições iniciais turbulentas fisicamente consistentes. Nesse contexto, o presente trabalho tem como objetivo o desenvolvimento de um código LES de alta ordem aliado a um método de geração de perturbações para o estudo de escoamentos turbulentos em camada limite sobre superfície plana. Foi adotada a formulação vorticidadevelocidade. A metodologia numérica baseia-se no método de diferenças finitas em malhas colocalizadas, onde as derivadas nas direções longitudinal e normal ao escoamento são aproximadas usando diferenças compactas de alta ordem. Esse estudo assume periodicidade na direção transversal do escoamento e então um método espectral é adotado nessa direção. A integração temporal é feita através do método Runge-Kutta de 4a ordem e a solução da equação de Poisson se dá por meio de um método multigrid. Para a modelagem submalha é adotado o modelo WALE (Wall-Adapting Local Eddy-viscosity). O método RFG (Random Flow Generation) foi responsável pela geração das flutuações de velocidade. Os resultados obtidos mostraram-se em boa concordância com os dados DNS (Direct Numerical Simulation) e LES presentes na literatura. / LES methodology is a viable alternative for the numerical solution of practical interest flows due to the computational limitations imposed by the direct resolution of all scales presented in turbulent flow. However, the detailed understanding of the turbulence phenomenon is still a challenging task as a result of its non-linear behavior and high sensitivity to initial and boundary conditions. Thus, the success of LES simulations is associated with the use of an efficient computational code, wherein the subgrid scale modeling accurately represents the flow dynamics, together with the specification of realistic inicial boundary conditions. In this context, this study aims to develop a high-order LES code combined with a method for generating velocity fluctuations to compute turbulent boundary layer flows over a flat plate. The vorticity-velocity formulation was adopted. The numerical scheme is based on the finite difference method in collocated grid, where the derivatives in the streamwise and wall-normal are approximated using high order compact finite difference schemes. We also assume periodicity in spanwise direction therefore it is adopted a spectral method in this direction. The method chosen for the temporal evolution is the 4th order Runge-Kutta method and the solution of Poisson equation solution is accessed via a multigrid algorithm. For subgrid modelling it is adopted the Wall-Adapting Local Eddy-viscosity (WALE) model. The RFG (Random Flow Generation) method was responsible for the generation of unsteady turbulent velocity signal. The results obtained were in good agreement with DNS (Direct Numerical Simulation) and LES from the literature.

<p>In order to design a power transformer it is important to understand its internal electromagnetic behaviour. That can be obtained by measurements on physical transformers, analytical expressions and computer simulations. One benefit with simulations is that the transformer can be studied before it is built physically and that the consequences of changing dimensions and parameters easily can be tested.</p><p>In this thesis a time-domain transformer model is presented. The model includes core losses as magnetic static hysteresis, eddy current and excess eddy current losses. Moreover, the model comprises winding losses including eddy currents, capacitive effects and leakage flux. The core and windings are first modelled separately and then connected together in a total transformer model. This results in a detailed transformer model.</p><p>One important result of the thesis is the possibility to simulate dynamic hysteresis including the eddy current shielding in the magnetic core material. This is achieved by using Cauer circuit combined with analytical expression for static and dynamic hysteresis. Thereby, all magnetic loss components in the material can be simulated accurately. This dynamic hysteresis model is verified through experiments showing very good agreement.</p>

Most flows in nature and engineering are turbulent, and many are wall-bounded. Further, in turbulent flows, the turbulence generally has a large impact on the behavior of the flow. It is therefore important to be able to predict the effects of turbulence in such flows. The Navier-Stokes equations are known to be an excellent model of the turbulence phenomenon. In simple geometries and low Reynolds numbers, very accurate numerical solutions of the Navier-Stokes equations (direct numerical simulation, or DNS) have been used to study the details of turbulent flows. However, DNS of high Reynolds number turbulent flows in complex geometries is impractical because of the escalation of computational cost with Reynolds number, due to the increasing range of spatial and temporal scales. In Large Eddy Simulation (LES), only the large-scale turbulence is simulated, while the effects of the small scales are modeled (subgrid models). LES therefore reduces computational expense, allowing flows of higher Reynolds number and more complexity to be simulated. However, this is at the cost of the subgrid modeling problem. The goal of the current research is then to develop new subgrid models consistent with the statistical properties of turbulence. The modeling approach pursued here is that of "Optimal LES". Optimal LES is a framework for constructing models with minimum error relative to an ideal LES model. The multi-point statistics used as input to the optimal LES procedure can be gathered from DNS of the same flow. However, for an optimal LES to be truly predictive, we must free ourselves from dependence on existing DNS data. We have done this by obtaining the required statistics from theoretical models which we have developed. We derived a theoretical model for the three-point third-order velocity correlation for homogeneous, isotropic turbulence in the inertial range. This model is shown be a good representation of DNS data, and it is used to construct optimal quadratic subgrid models for LES of forced isotropic turbulence with results which agree well with theory and DNS. The model can also be filtered to determine the filtered two-point third-order correlation, which describes energy transfer among filtered (large) scales in LES. LES of wall-bounded flows with unresolved wall layers commonly exhibit good prediction of mean velocities and significant over-prediction of streamwise component energies in the near-wall region. We developed improved models for the nonlinear term in the filtered Navier-Stokes equation which result in better predicted streamwise component energies. These models involve (1) Reynolds decomposition of the nonlinear term and (2) evaluation of the pressure term, which removes the divergent part of the nonlinear models. These considerations significantly improved the performance of our optimal models, and we expect them to apply to other subgrid models as well. / text

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L'intégration aérodynamique des turboréacteurs à grand taux de dilution nécessite, dès les phases de conception, une connaissance précise des propriétés instationnaires du développement du jet à l'aide de la simulation numérique. Différents niveaux de modélisation sont étudiés dans cette thèse pour évaluer la capacité des méthodes numériques à caractériser le développement du jet. Une configuration de jet moteur double-flux est ici étudiée, en s'appuyant sur une large base de données expérimentale. La modélisation par les équations de Navier-Stokes moyennées démontre une bonne capacité des modèles de turbulence à reproduire les champs moyens de ce type d'écoulement, particulièrement au niveau des couches de mélange. La capture des systèmes de choc développés au sein des jets primaire et secondaire, ainsi que la prévision des niveaux de turbulence des écoulements sont en revanche peu satisfaisantes. Un recalage de la simulation sur les conditions turbulentes expérimentales, à l'aide de différentes configurations, pallie en partie ce défaut. La nécessité de procéder à un calcul et non plus à une modélisation des phénomènes turbulents conduit à l'application d'une méthode de calcul à résolution de turbulence. L'approche hybride de simulation des tourbillons détachés type DES (Detached Eddy Simulation) de cet écoulement montre une précision au moins équivalente pour la prévision des champs moyens et apporte une grande quantité d'informations supplémentaire sur les champs fluctuants et les caractéristiques instationnaires des couches de mélange du jet, en accord avec les données expérimentales. On conclue sur l'applicabilité de cette méthode dans un contexte industriel,son gain de précision rapporté à son temps de calcul et la perspective d'une telle approche pour une configuration de jet installée plus complexe. / The aerodynamic integration of Ultra-High Bypass Ratio turbofans raises the need for an accurate prediction of the unsteady properties of the jet development using Computational Fluid Dynamics, since the design stages. The ability of numerical methods in predicting these phenomena are assessed in this thesis, using different modelling approaches. A dual-stream jet configuration is investigated, using an associated wind-tunnel test campaign. Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes simulations, using several turbulence models, are shown to correctly reproduce the mean flow especially concerning the shear layers. Shock cells and turbulence levels predictions within the primary and secondary jet flows are however perfectible compared to the test results. Turbulence-accounting approaches based upon experimental data and using different configurations partially overcome this issue. An unsteady methodis then applied in order to resolve turbulent phenomena instead of modelling them. The hybrid Detached-Eddy Simulation of the flow demonstrates an at least equivalent accuracy concerning the mean flow and provides additional information on the fluctuating fields and shear layers unsteady properties, in fair agreement with the experimental results. Prospects discuss benefits and consequences of this approach taking into account its cost and the industrial context of this application,as well as its potential use for a more complex, installed jet configuration.

L'impact des modifications climatiques et de l'augmentation de la démographie sur le cycle de l'eau et de l'énergie dans la région ouest africaine passe par la quantification des échanges entre les différents couverts de la surface continentale et l'atmosphère. Toutefois, la compréhension du rôle des interactions entre la surface et l'atmosphère dans la dynamique de la mousson ouest africaine est limitée par le manque d'observations dans cette région. Cette thèse porte sur l'étude des flux turbulents, en particulier l'évapotranspiration réelle, en climat soudanien. Les deux couverts étudiés sont une forêt claire (site de Bellefoungou) et une mosaïque de culture/jachère (site de Nalohou), situés dans la région du Nord – Bénin. On dispose de quatre années de mesures (2007 à 2010). Les sites d'étude font partie de l'observatoire hydro – météorologique AMMA – CATCH.Les données de flux turbulents de l'atmosphère ont été mesurées avec la technique d'eddy covariance. La partition énergétique des flux a été examinée à travers la fraction évaporative (EF) et le rapport de Bowen (β) aux échelles diurne, saisonnière et inter-annuelle. Des caractéristiques de surface (conductance de surface et aérodynamique) et le coefficient de découplage ont été calculés pour interpréter la dynamique de l'évapotranspiration réelle.L'analyse des résultats est basée sur un découpage du cycle saisonnier suivant quatre phases du cycle de la mousson : la saison sèche, la saison humide, les phases d'humidification et d'assèchement de l'atmosphère. Aux échelles diurne et saisonnière, on montre que le taux d'évapotranspiration réelle de la forêt est toujours supérieur à celui de la mosaïque de culture/jachère quelle que soit la saison. L'évapotranspiration réelle demeure non nulle en saison sèche sur le site de Nalohou malgré les conditions de surface peu favorables à ce processus. En saison humide, après le saut de mousson, la partition énergétique des flux atteint un régime stationnaire avec une moyenne égale à 0,75 à Bellefoungou et 0,70 à Nalohou pour les 4 années étudiées. Le rapport de Bowen pris dans le même ordre est environ de 0,4 et 0,6 traduisant ainsi, en dépit des conditions humides, la part non négligeable du flux de chaleur sensible sur les deux couverts végétaux. La différence de rugosité entre les deux couverts végétaux entraîne une conductance aérodynamique nettement supérieure à Bellefoungou par rapport à Nalohou. On montre également que la végétation du site de Nalohou est plus efficace en transpiration pendant la saison humide que celle du site de Bellefoungou. A l'échelle inter-annuelle, on n'a pas pu mettre en évidence une relation entre flux de chaleur latente et pluviométrie pour les quatre années étudiées qui sont toutes des années excédentaires. Cependant nous avons observé que le rayonnement net explique la majeure partie de la variabilité inter-annuelle des flux turbulents.Enfin, nous avons également montré avec le coefficient de découplage que la surface soudanienne et l'atmosphère restent couplées toute l'année. Ce fonctionnement de l'interface surface – atmosphère reflète le rôle majeur que jouent les conditions de surface dans la variabilité saisonnière de l'évapotranspiration réelle. Les résultats issus de cette étude donnent une première estimation des flux de chaleur latente et de chaleur sensible sur une forêt claire et une mosaïque de culture/jachère en climat soudanien. Ils sont d'une importance capitale pour la paramétrisation et la validation des modèles de surface ainsi que pour la quantification robuste de la ressource en eau disponible en surface pour l'agriculture, principale activité génératrice de revenus des populations locales. / Assessing the impact of climate and anthropic changes on the water and energy cycles, mainly rely on the quantification of the transfer between the various land covers and the atmosphere. Nevertheless the land – atmosphere interactions in the West African monsoon dynamic is not yet well understood because of the lack of observations in this region. This thesis focuses on the analysis of the sensible and latent heat fluxes under Sudanian climate. The two studied land covers are a clear forest (Bellefoungou) and a cultivated area (Nalohou), located in northern Benin, during four years (2007-2010). The study sites are a part of the hydro – meteorological AMMA – CATCH observatory.Turbulent fluxes were measured with the eddy covariance technique.The flux partitioning was investigated through the evaporative fraction (EF) and the Bowen ratio (β) at diurnal, seasonal and inter-annual scales. Surface characteristics (surface and aerodynamical conductance) and the decoupling factor were calculated to interpret the dynamic of the actual evapotranspiration.The analysis was performed according to four different stages of the monsoon cycle: dry and wet seasons drying and moistening intermediate stages. At diurnal and seasonal scales, actual evapotranspiration was always higher on the forest than on the cultivated area. It remained non zero during the dry season at Nalohou despite surface conditions which were not favorable to this process. During the wet season, after the monsoon onset, EF remained steady with a mean seasonal value of 0.75 at Bellefoungou and 0.70 at Nalohou for the four studied years. The Bowen ratio was 0.4 and 0.6 respectively, thus the sensible heat flux was significant on the two contrasted vegetation covers during the wet season. The contrasted roughness length of the two vegetation covers led to a highest aerodynamic conductance at the clear forest site. The mixed of crop/fallow was shown to be more efficient than the clear forest regarding wet season transpiration. At the inter-annual scale, no relationship can be evidenced between evapotranspiration and annual rainfall for the studied period (2007-2010), which was rather rainy. Nevertheless, the net radiation explains the main part of turbulent fluxes inter-annual variation.Finally, complete surface atmosphere decoupling was never observed. This property of the surface – atmosphere interface underlines the key role of the surface conditions in the actual evapotranspiration. Our results provide a first estimate of the latent and sensible heat fluxes over a clear forest and a mixed crop/fallow under sudanian climate. They are relevant to land surface models parametrisation or evaluation and to a robust quantification of the water resources for agriculture, the main economic activity in this region.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Neste estudo, o fluxo de calor sensível (H), fluxo de calor latente (Le), evapotranspiração (ET), foram investigados utilizando o método de covariância de vórtices durante o período de cultivo de trigo em 2011. A estimativa usando a equação de Penman-Monteith também foi realizada. A influência dos diferentes sistemas de cultivo, convencional e direto, na fenologia de trigo foi realizada utilizando os dados de índice de área foliar (IAF) e produtividade.O experimento foi realizado no município de Cruz Alta-RS, em uma área agrícola localizada na Cooperativa Central Gaúcha Ltda Tecnologia. Durante o período de cultivo do trigo foram coletados dados fenométricos e micrometeorológicos. O fluxo de energia na forma de calor latente (Le) foi responsável pela utilização da maior parte da energia disponível, principalmente nos períodos em que o índice de área foliar (IAF) do trigo é maior. Os valores médios diários para o período de cultivo do trigo para H é de 7,8 Wm-2, para Le de 73,17 Wm-2, para G de -1,72 Wm-2 e para Rn de 70,95 Wm-2. Além do subsolo aquecer a superficie, também houve uma advecção de mais de 15 Wm-2 no período para esta região. A evapotranspiração experimental acumulada foi de 256 mm, enquanto que a precipitação total foi de 799 mm. Contudo, a evapotranspiração acumulada obtida utilizando a equação de Penman-Monteith foi de 282,72 mm. As médias para as resistência aerodinâmica e de superfície foram 39,54 sm-1 e 378,98 sm-1, respectivamente. Com relação à fenologia da cultura agrícola, para o sistema de cultivo convencional o trigo obteve maior produtividade, além de maior IAF. / Neste estudo, o fluxo de calor sensível (H), fluxo de calor latente (Le), evapotranspiração (ET), foram investigados utilizando o método de covariância de vórtices durante o período de cultivo de trigo em 2011. A estimativa usando a equação de Penman-Monteith também foi realizada. A influência dos diferentes sistemas de cultivo, convencional e direto, na fenologia de trigo foi realizada utilizando os dados de índice de área foliar (IAF) e produtividade.O experimento foi realizado no município de Cruz Alta-RS, em uma área agrícola localizada na Cooperativa Central Gaúcha Ltda Tecnologia. Durante o período de cultivo do trigo foram coletados dados fenométricos e micrometeorológicos. O fluxo de energia na forma de calor latente (Le) foi responsável pela utilização da maior parte da energia disponível, principalmente nos períodos em que o índice de área foliar (IAF) do trigo é maior. Os valores médios diários para o período de cultivo do trigo para H é de 7,8 Wm-2, para Le de 73,17 Wm-2, para G de -1,72 Wm-2 e para Rn de 70,95 Wm-2. Além do subsolo aquecer a superficie, também houve uma advecção de mais de 15 Wm-2 no período para esta região. A evapotranspiração experimental acumulada foi de 256 mm, enquanto que a precipitação total foi de 799 mm. Contudo, a evapotranspiração acumulada obtida utilizando a equação de Penman-Monteith foi de 282,72 mm. As médias para as resistência aerodinâmica e de superfície foram 39,54 sm-1 e 378,98 sm-1, respectivamente. Com relação à fenologia da cultura agrícola, para o sistema de cultivo convencional o trigo obteve maior produtividade, além de maior IAF.

Master of Science / Department of Agronomy / Jay M. Ham / The potential environmental impact of animal feeding operations on air quality has created the need for accurate air emissions measurements. Of particular concern are ammonia emissions from cattle feedlots, operations that contribute a large portion of the agricultural ammonia emissions inventory. Micrometeorological methods are ideal for emissions measurements from large, open-source areas like feedlot pens; however, theoretical assumptions about the boundary layer must be made, which may not hold true above the heterogeneous, fetch-limited surface of the feedlot. Thus, the first objective of this work was to characterize the surface boundary layer of an open-air cattle feedlot and provide insight into how micrometeorological techniques might be applied to these non-ideal sites. Eddy covariance was used to measure fluxes of momentum, heat, water, and carbon dioxide from a commercial cattle feedlot in central Kansas. Data supported the use of eddy covariance and similar methods (i.e., relaxed eddy accumulation) for flux measurements from both cattle and pen surfaces. The modeled cumulative source area contributing to eddy covariance measurements at a 6 m sample height was dominated by just a few pens near the tower, making the characteristics of those pens especially important when interpreting results. The second objective was to develop a system for measuring ammonia fluxes from feedlots. A new type of relaxed eddy accumulation system was designed, fabricated, and tested that used honeycomb denuders to independently sample ammonia in up-moving and down-moving eddies. Field testing of the relaxed eddy accumulation system at a feedlot near Manhattan, KS showed fluxes of ammonia ranged between 60 and 130 μg m-2 s-1 during the summer of 2007. Even in the high ammonia environment (e.g., 300-600 μg m-3), the honeycomb denuders had enough capacity for the 4-hour sampling duration and could be used to measure other chemical species that the denuders could be configured to capture. Results provide a foundation for emissions measurements of ammonia and other gases at cattle feedlots and help address some of the challenges that micrometeorologists face with any non-ideal source area.

A l’heure actuelle, seuls des facteurs locaux, stationnels, sont considérés pour le calcul des risques liés au vent alors que le vent qui aborde un peuplement forestier est affecté par les surfaces sur lesquelles il vient de passer ; les lisières en particulier jouent un rôle important sur l’écoulement atmosphérique, en contribuant à générer de la turbulence. Dans un paysage fragmenté, constitué d’une mosaïque de surfaces de différentes hauteurs et rugosités, la multiplicité des lisières est ainsi susceptible d’avoir des effets cumulatifs perceptibles à l’échelle régionale, qui pourraient contribuer de manière significative à la fragilité des massifs face à des tempêtes. Certains niveaux de fragmentation semblent susceptibles de conduire à un accroissement des risques en cas de vent violent. Bien que la région de lisière a été étudiée de manière approfondie dans le passé en raison de leur importance pour la détermination des vitesses de vent, des niveaux de turbulence et des échanges entre l’atmosphère et la canopée, il n’y a aucune étude de l’impact de lisières multiples ou de la fragmentation des forêts sur les caractéristiques de la couche limite à l’échelle du paysage. Quelques rares études laissent penser que la fragmentation du paysage pourrait moduler de manière significative la structure turbulente de la couche limite atmosphérique mais ces études concernent des réseaux de brisevents plutôt qu’un ensemble de parcelles forestières. On cherche par conséquent à caractériser les champs de vent et de turbulence pour ces différentes configurations. Pour ce faire, une expérimentation en soufflerie à été réalisée, visant à caractériser l’écoulement sur des maquettes de paysage présentant cinq degrés de fragmentation (L = ~ 5, ~ 10, ~15, ~20, ~30h, où L est la distance entre deux patchs de forêts régulièrement espacés et h est la hauteur de la canopée). Un cas homogène a également été simulé et sert ici de référence. Pour le modèle de canopée choisi, ces expérimentations montrent que l’énergie cinétique turbulente présente dans la basse atmosphère ne passe pas par un maximum pour une valeur de l’espacement intermédiaire comme il était supposé à l’origine. Le cas homogène est la configuration la plus rugueuse. Pour de grands espacements l’influence d’une parcelle ne se fait guère sentir sur la suivante et lorsqu’ils sont faibles l’écoulement ne "ressent" guère les clairières et présente des caractéristiques semblables au cas homogène. Nous avons également évalué un modèle atmosphérique de type "simulation des grandes échelles" à l’aide des données présentées précédemment. Le modèle est capable de reproduire les grandes caractéristiques de la turbulence telles que les vitesses de vent horizontales et verticales, l’énergie cinétique turbulente, les contraintes de Reynolds et les coefficients d’asymétrie horizontale et verticale en tous points du domaine. Cela nous a permis de confirmer la validité des calculs numériques et de simuler l’écoulement sur une plus large gamme de paysages fragmentés. Les résultats démontrent l’importance de l’indice foliaire pour le calcul de la rugosité effective sur une succession de patchs de forêt. / At present only the characteristics of a forest stand and its immediate environment are taken into account in calculating forest wind risk. However, it is known that the wind is strongly affected by the surfaces over which it has previously flowed. Forest edges in particular play an important role in determining the characteristics of the atmospheric flow by generating increased turbulence, triggering the formation of coherent tree scale structures. In a fragmented landscape, consisting of surfaces of different heights and roughness, the multiplicity of edges may have cumulative effects at the regional scale leading to increased forest damage during storms. Flow changes in the atmospheric boundary-layer across surface roughness changes have received extensive study in the past because of their importance in determining velocities, turbulence levels and exchange between the atmosphere and biosphere or ground. There have also been a number of studies across single forest edges both in the field, wind-tunnels and computer models. However, there have been no studies of flow across multiple forest edges or the impact of forest fragmentation on the characteristics of the boundary-layer. The only studies on multiple surface changes have been wind-tunnel examination of the flow though and across multiple wind-breaks. In this thesis we show results from a series of wind tunnel experiments on a range of levels of forest fragmentation. Five gap spacings (L = ~ 5, ~ 10, ~15, ~20, ~30h, where L is the length of the gap and h is the canopy height) were investigated using 3D laser doppler velocimetry in order to assess the effects of fragmented landscapes on mean and turbulent wind characteristics. The fragmentation was two-dimensional with the transition between forest and gaps only being along the wind direction and the forest and gaps were continuous perpendicular to the wind direction. The wind speeds and turbulence characteristics are compared against measurements from a single forest edge in the wind tunnel, which acts as a reference. No enhancement of turbulence formation at a particular level of fragmentation was observed but there was a consistent pattern of wind speed and turbulence back from the first edge of each simulation with the horizontal velocity at tree top increasing and the turbulent kinetic energy decreasing as gap size increased. We also compare mean wind speeds (U and W) and turbulence characteristics (variance in u, v, and w; skewness in U, V, and W; Reynold’s stress, and TKE) at all points in the experimental measurement domain of the wind tunnel with Large Eddy Simulation (LES) results, which allows us to confirm the validity of the LES calculations and to conduct a wider range of experiments than was possible in the wind-tunnel. The results demonstrate the importance of the frontal area index or roughness density of elements (in this case trees) in determining the nature of the flow and the effective roughness of the overall surface. They also show that as the gaps between forest blocks increases the flow transitions (at a gap size between 10 to 15 tree heights) from flow comparable to that over a continuous forest to flow across a set of isolated forest blocks.