A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. Johannesburg, March 2017. / Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) is an example of an alien invasive plant, threatening ecosystems around the world. Taking into consideration all the negative impacts caused by the proliferation of water hyacinth, many control measures have been implemented to manage this weed. These include mechanical control, chemical control and biological control. But in recent years, the focus has shifted towards natural enemies for control (biological control) of water hyacinth because they have many advantages for environmental safety. However, in South Africa, success is limited in most parts of the country. Factors affecting the success of biological control of water hyacinth in South Africa have been attributed in part to weather conditions. Therefore, further studies and other strategies are needed to reinforce the biological control of water hyacinth. This is why this research investigated the influences of temperature on Neochetina eichhorniae larvae feeding and development on water hyacinth, to contribute to the future management of water hyacinth biological control. To measure the effect of temperature on the feeding and development of Neochetina eichhorniae larva, experiments were conducted at four fixed temperatures (15 °C, 20 °C, 25 °C, and 30 °C). Larval feeding is expected to be greater and the development faster at warm temperatures compared with cold temperatures. The results of this study confirmed that, both feeding and larval development increased with an increase in temperature. The highest larval feeding damage was recorded at 30°C and the lowest at 15°C. Similar to the feeding of larvae, warmer temperatures were more favourable to the growth of larvae than cold temperatures; all larvae found at 30°C were in their third instars (with 0.72 mm being the biggest headwidth found) while all larvae at 15°C were in the first instars (with 0.28 mm being the smallest headwidth found). Even if the optimal temperature for larval performance took place at 30 °C (with a high amount of biomass removal), it was at 25 °C that the larvae had a larger effect on the growth of water hyacinth. Larval feeding damage reduced the growth of water hyacinth by 30 % at 25 °C and only affected 24 % of water hyacinth growth at iv 30 °C. Therefore, for the biocontrol of water hyacinth, the ideal temperature to slow the progression of the weed will be recommended at between 25- 30 °C. / LG2017

Numerous examples of non-linear survival curves, plotted as log surviving cells vs. time, for bacteria exposed to heat have been reported. Factors which may affect the shape of a survival curve and the heat resistance of bacteria include temperature, pH, and NaCl concentration. Many studies have examined the effect of these factors individually, but little information exists on the combined effects. The objective of this study was to mathematically model non-linear survival curves to account for these factors and their interactions simultaneously. Heat resistance of <u>Listeria monocytogenes</u>(L. <u>monocytogenes</u>) was determined in O.lM KH₂P0₄ buffer and in infant formula at three temperatures (50, 55, and 60 C), three pH levels (5, 6, and 7), and three NaCl concentrations (0, 2, 4%). Survival curves were fit using linear regression, non-linear regression with a modified logistic equation, and non-linear regression with a modified Gompertz equation. / Ph. D.

Thesis (PhD (Forest and Wood Science))--University of Stellenbosch, 2006. / The discolouration of South African softwood during kiln drying can reduce the value of furniture grade lumber. Thermal discolouration of wood, as found due to heat treatment, produces a homogeneously browner colour in wood than is normally expected. This type of discolouration is attributed to reactions of the macromolecules present in wood and is found in both hard- and softwoods. Yellow stain and kiln brown stain can severely alter the colour of the outer few millimeters of a wooden board and is attributed to the reaction of water-soluble sugars and nitrogenous compounds, present in the wood sap, after deposition at the wood surface due to liquid or capillary water flow during drying. A discussion of the mechanism of discolouration due to yellow stain and kiln brown stain would be incomplete without a good understanding of the liquid flow of water during drying above fibre saturation point. This thesis brings the two concepts of liquid water flow and discolouration in context and is presented in four chapters: • an introduction motivating the aims of the investigation (Chapter 1); • a literature review of factors which may influence discolouration and liquid water flow during drying (Chapter 2); • original manuscripts describing the discolouration of South African softwood and liquid water flow in hard- and softwood (Chapter 3); and • a final conclusion that links up the results from the investigations (Chapter 4). The investigations into the occurrence of yellow stain and kiln brown stain showed that the intensity of these types of discolouration was influenced by geographical origin (and/or climate), tree species, planing depth of dried lumber, and kiln schedule parameters like dry- and wet bulb temperature and time. The characteristic discolouration pattern of yellow stain and kiln brown stain indicated that this stain type was related to the wetline phenomenon that is found during the liquid water flow phase of drying wet wood. Thermal discolouration, on the other hand, occurred homogeneously throughout the volume of lumber and is, therefore, not related to free water flow, but to chemical changes of the macromolecules in wood. The results of the liquid water flow investigations support the invasion percolation theory of drying that states that the largest meniscus will retract into a drying liquid-filled capillary network until it is not the largest meniscus anymore. Fluctuations in the rate of moisture loss from the cores of wood pieces above fibre saturation point were also found. The pattern of fluctuation differed appreciably between Betula verrucosa and Pinus radiata. In both cases, the start of the last phase in rate of moisture loss from the core coincided with a reduction in the cross-sectional area of the drying wood piece. This behaviour is explained by the hypothesis that distinct capillary size classes are emptied of free water, in order, from large to small. As smaller capillaries are emptied, the capillary forces become greater, to the point where the forces are great enough to cause permanent or temporary deformation of the remaining water-filled capillaries. Classification and regression tree analysis was a useful statistical technique to analyse a large multivariate dataset. The importance of kiln schedule temperatures and planing depth to control yellow stain and kiln brown stain was clearly pointed out by the technique, which can help to simplify the control of colour quality during the industrial processing of wood.

ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The export of Japanese plums from South Africa is challenging, since most cultivars are prone to develop chilling injury (CI) when stored at low temperatures. This injury manifests as gel breakdown or internal browning in the mesocarp tissue of the fruit on removal from low storage temperature conditions, i.e. in the consumer’s fruit basket, who subsequently does not buy plums again. Loss of cell membrane integrity and oxidative stress are, respectively, the primary and secondary physiological responses to CI. The main aim of this study was to investigate changes in cell membrane composition and levels of antioxidants in plums throughout fruit development and maturation, during forced air cooling (FAC) and storage under different temperature regimes. ‘Sapphire’ (a chilling susceptible cultivar) accumulated high levels of glutathione and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) during fruit development. Therefore, the cultivar is protected against lipid peroxidation while developing on the tree, but the high levels of PUFAs, which are easily oxidised, may cause this cultivar to be chilling susceptible when stored at low temperatures. It is suggested that the high levels of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs), which are not easily oxidised, and ascorbic acid that accumulated in ‘Angeleno’ (a chilling resistant cultivar) during fruit development, render this cultivar CI resistant during long-term cold-storage. When stored at -0.5 °C, CI development increased at a higher rate, ethylene evolution rates were higher and water soluble antioxidant activity (HAA), ascorbic acid and glutathione levels, and the MUFA:PUFA ratio were lower in H2 (more mature) ‘Sapphire’ plums than H1 fruit (less mature). Therefore, concurrent with H2 fruit having lower levels of antioxidants to quench free radicals caused by chilling stress, their cell membranes were more vulnerable to oxidation due to their phospholipid fatty acid composition. H2 fruit also had higher levels of saturated fatty acids, and hence less fluid cell membranes than H1 fruit when stored at -0.5 °C. An intermittent warming (IW) regime delayed symptom appearance and reduced CI severity in plums significantly compared to storage at -0.5 °C. Fruit stored under the IW regime had a more optimal phospholipid fatty acid composition and lower membrane sterol levels under shelf-life conditions to keep the membranes fluid. It also had higher levels of HAA and lipid soluble antioxidant activity, ascorbic acid and glutathione, which rendered fruit better protected against oxidation. Elevated storage temperatures (2.5 °C to 7.5 °C) caused higher levels of lipid peroxidation or low ascorbic acid levels and poor fruit quality compared to the IW regime in ‘Sapphire’ plums. ‘Laetitia’ plums stored at 5 °C and 7.5 °C had significantly less CI than under the IW regime, but softened quicker due to higher ethylene evolution rates. ‘Sapphire’ tolerated both long and short FAC durations, but a slower initial FAC rate prevented CI manifestation and caused a higher HAA after cold-storage in this fruit. ‘Laetitia’ cooled with a slower initial FAC rate and for a longer duration resulted in the best fruit quality and had higher HAA, total phenolic, phospholipid and saturated phospholipid fatty acid concentrations during storage. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die uitvoer van Japanese pruime vanaf Suid-Afrika hou talle uitdagings in, want die meeste van die kultivars ontwikkel koueskade wanneer hulle by lae temperature opgeberg word. Koueskade manifesteer as gelverval of interne verbruining in die mesokarpweefsel van die vrugte wanneer die vrugte verwyder word uit die lae opbergingstemperatuuromstandighede, m.a.w. in die verbruiker se vrugtemandjie, wat nie weer pruime koop nie. Verlies aan selmembraanintegriteit en oksidatiewe druk is, respektiewelik, die primêre and sekondêre fisiologiese reaksies op koueskade. Die hoofdoel van hierdie studie was om die veranderinge in selmembraansamestelling en antioksidantkonsentrasie in pruime te ondersoek tydens vrugontwikkeling en volwassewording, tydens geforseerde lugverkoeling (GLV) en tydens opberging onder verskillende temperatuurregimes. ‘Sapphire’ (‘n koueskade sensitiewe kultivar) het hoër konsentrasies van glutatioon en polionversadigde vetsure (POV) tydens vrugontwikkeling geakkumuleer. Dié kultivar is dus voldoende beskerm teen lipiedperoksidasie tydens vrugontwikkeling aan die boom, maar die hoë konsentrasies van POVs, wat maklik oksideer, mag veroorsaak dat hierdie kultivar meer koueskadesensitief is wanneer dit by lae temperature opgeberg word. Die hoë konsentrasies van mono-onversadigde vetsure (MOV), wat nie maklik oksideer nie, en askorbiensuur wat in ‘Angeleno’ (‘n koueskade weerstandbiedende kultivar) geakkumuleer het tydens vrugontwikkeling, verleen moontlik weerstandbiedendheid teen koueskade aan hierdie kultivar tydens langtermyn koelkopbering. Tydens opberging by -0.5 °C het koueskade ontwikkeling vinniger toegeneem, was etileenvrystellingstempos hoër en die wateroplosbare antioksidantaktiwiteit (HAA), askorbiensuuren glutatioonkonsentrasies en die MOV:POV verhouding laer in H2 (meer volwasse) ‘Sapphire’ pruime as in die H1 vrugte (minder volwasse). Dus, tesame met die laer antioksidantkonsentrasies in die H2 vrugte om die vry radikale veroorsaak deur koelopbering te verminder, was hul selmembrane ook meer vatbaar vir oksidasie a.g.v. die vetsuursamestellling van hul membraanfosfolipiede. Die H2 vrugte het ook ‘n hoër konsentrasie van versadigde vetsure, en dus minder vloeibare membrane as die H1 vrugte gehad tydens opberging by -0.5 °C. Die dubbeltemperatuurregime (DT) het simptoomontwikkeling vertraag en koueskade-intensiteit betekenisvol verminder in vergelyking met pruime wat by -0.5 °C opgeberg is. Vrugte wat met die DT regime opgeberg is, het ‘n meer optimale fosfolipiedvetsuursamestelling en laer konsentrasie van membraansterole tydens gesimuleerde raklewe gehad wat meer vloeibare membrane verseker het. Hierdie behandeling het ook hoër HAA en lipiedoplosbare antioksidantaktiwiteit (LAA), askorbiensuur- en glutatioonkonsentrasies gehad wat die vrugte beskerm het teen oksidatiewe druk. Verhoogde opbergingstemperature het hoër vlakke van lipiedperoksidasie of lae askorbiensuurkonsentrasies asook swak vrugkwaliteit in ‘Sapphire’ pruime veroorsaak in vergelyking met die DT regime. ‘Laetitia’ pruime wat by 5 °C en 7.5 °C opgeberg is, het betekenisvol minder koueskade gehad in vergelyking met die DT regime, maar het vinniger sag geword a.g.v. hoër etileenvrystellingstempos. ‘Sapphire’ kon lang en kort GLV tye weerstaan, maar ‘n stadiger inisiële GLV spoed het die manifestasie van koueskade voorkom en het ‘n hoër HAA in die vrugte tot gevolg gehad na koelopberging. ‘Laetitia’ wat met ‘n stadiger inisiële GLV spoed en oor ‘n langer tyd verkoel is, het die beste vrugkwaliteit, en hoër HAA, totale fenool-, fosfolipied- en versadigde fosfolipiedvetsuurkonsentrasies as die ander behandelings tydens koelopberging gehad

O cancro cítrico, causado por Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri (Xac), é um dos mais graves problemas fitossanitário da citricultura brasileira. Com a introdução da lagarta minadora dos citros (Phyllocnistis citrella [LMC]), houve um aumento drástico do número de focos do cancro cítrico, além da mudança do padrão espacial de fortemente agregado para moderadamente agregado e ao acaso. Foram avaliados: (1) suscetibilidade de três condições foliares: folha intacta, ferimento mecânico e injúria de LMC nas fases ovo, 1º ínstar, 3º ínstar e pupa, inoculados em diferentes concentrações de Xac (101, 102, 104 e 106 ufc/ml); (2) período de suscetibilidade da folha intacta, do ferimento mecânico e injúria de LMC inoculados a 106 ufc/ml; e (3) efeito da temperatura (12, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40 e 42°C) e duração do molhamento foliar (0, 4, 8, 12, 16, 20 e 24 h) em folhas sem ferimento inoculadas a 106 ufc/ml. A concentração mínima de inóculo para causar sintomas da doença em folha intacta, injúria de LMC fase ovo e 1º ínstar foi de 104 ufc/ml; em ferimento mecânico e injúria de LMC fase 3º ínstar e pupa, 102 ufc/ml. Injúria da fase pupa resultou em grande severidade do que nos demais tratamentos a 106 ufc/ml (2 vezes maior do que em folha intacta).O período de suscetibilidade da injúria de LMC foi seis vezes mais longo do que do ferimento mecânico e a máxima suscetibilidade foi três vezes maior que em folha intacta. A LMC está relacionada com o aumento do dano que expõem mesofilo foliar à infecção direta de Xac, aumentando a suscetibilidade da folha por longo período. A faixa de temperatura ótima para o desenvolvimento do cancro cítrico foi de 25-35ºC. Entretanto, a severidade foi mais alta entre 30-35ºC. Sintomas de cancro não desenvolveram a 42ºC e na ausência de molhamento foliar. O efeito da temperatura foi maior do que a duração do molhamento foliar. A mínima duração de molhamento para infecção de Xac foi menor que 4 horas. / Asiatic citrus canker, caused by X. axonopodispv.citri (Xac), is one of the most serious phytosanitary problems in Brazilian citrus crops.The introduction of the citrus leafminer (Phyllocnistis citrella [CLM]), has resulted in an increase in the number of disease foci and has changed the spatial pattern of citrus canker symptomatic trees from strong aggregation to intermediate aggregation and random patterns. We evaluated: (1) susceptibility of three distinct leaf condition: intact leaves, mechanical wounding, and injury caused by CLM at the egg stage, 1st instar, 3rd instar, and pupal stage, inoculated at different concentration of Xac (101, 102, 104, and 106 cfu/ml); (2) susceptibility period of intact leaves, mechanical wounding, and CLM injury inoculated at 106 ufc/ml; and (3) effect of temperature (12, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40 and 42°C) and leaf wetness durations (0, 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, and 24 h) on unwounded leaves inoculated at 106 ufc/ml. The minimum inoculum concentration to cause symptom development in intact leaves, CLM injury at the egg stage and 1st instar was 104 cfu/ml; in mechanically wounded leaves and CLM injuries at the 3rd instar and pupa stage, 102 cfu/ml. The injuries from pupa stage resulted in greater disease severity than other treatments at 106 cfu/ml (two times higher than in the intact leaf). Susceptibility period of CLM injury was six time longer than mechanical wounding and maximum observed susceptibility was three times higher than intact leaf. CLM is related to the amount of damage that exposes mesophyll cells to direct Xac infection, increasing the susceptibility of leaf for long period. Optimal temperature for development of citrus canker was 25-35°C. However, disease severity was highest in the range 30-35°C. Symptoms did not develop at 42°C and zero hour of leaf wetness duration. Effect of temperature was .greater than leaf wetness duration. The minimum wetness duration for Xac infection was as short as 4 h.

O Cancro Cítrico (CC), causado por Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri ( Xac) é uns dos mais graves problemas fitossanitário da citricultura paulista. A partir da introdução da Lagarta Minadora dos Citros (LMC), Phyllocnistis citrella, o comportamento do CC mudou drasticamente, tornando-se mais severo. Para compreender a interação de Xac e da LMC em Limão Tahiti foram conduzidos, em condições controladas, três experimentos: (A) influência da via de penetração de Xac (estômato, ferimento mecânico e injúria de LMC das fases ovo, 1º ínstar, 3º ínstar e pupa) e das concentrações de inóculo de 10 1 , 10 2 , 10 4 e 10 6 UFC/mL na infecção de Xac; (B) efeito da idade do ferimento mecânico, da injúria de LMC e da folha intacta no progresso do CC; (C) influência da temperatura e do período de molhamento no desenvolvimento do CC. No experimento A, a concentração mínima de inóculo para causar CC via penetração de Xac por estômato foi de 10 4 UFC/mL; 10 2 UFC/mL para via ferimento mecânico e injúria de LMC na fase ovo e 1º ínstar; e 10 1 UFC/mL para via injúria fase 3º ínstar e pupa. A injúria da fase 3º ínstar e pupa proporcionaram maior severidade em relação às outras vias de penetração nas concentrações testadas (aproximadamente 6 vezes maior que a severidade em folha intacta a 10 6 UFC/mL). As severidades em folha com ferimento mecânico e com injúria da fase ovo e 1º ínstar não diferiram da folha intacta. No experimento B, o ferimento mecânico entre 0 e 6 dias após o ferimento da folha (0 a 6 dias de idade), injúria de LMC entre 0 e 32 dias após a ovoposição de P. citrella na folha (0 a 32 dias de idade) e folha intacta entre 0 e 35 dias após a emissão da folha (0 a 35 dias de idade) foram suscetíveis a Xac. A severidade decresceu linearmente com o aumento da idade do ferimento e da folha intacta. A severidade, em relação à idade de injúria, variou em função do modelo Beta generalizado, com ponto de inflexão aos 18 dias. A máxima severidade estimada em folha com injúria foi 10 vezes maior que em folha intacta. No experimento C, observou-se que para os menores intervalos de aparecimento de lesões e 100% de incidência de CC, as condições ótimas foram de 25 a 35ºC com período mínimo de molhamento de 4 horas. O modelo Beta-monomolecular ajustou-se bem à variação da severidade em função da temperatura e da duração do molhamento foliar. As temperaturas mínima e máxima estimadas foram de 14,9 e 42ºC. A máxima severidade estimada foi determinada para o molhamento de 24 horas a 31,7ºC. Em geral, a injúria de LMC nas fases acima de 3º ínstar influenciou na infecção de Xac possibilitando infecções mesmo em baixas concentrações de inóculo (10 células/mL) e durante um longo período (32 dias). Em folhas com injúria de LMC, a severidade de CC pode ser 10 vezes maior que em folha intacta. As condições favoráveis para a infecção de Xac são de 25 a 35ºC e a bactéria não demanda longos períodos de molhamento foliar (acima de 4 horas). Por esses resultados, conclui-se que a LMC tem papel relevante na epidemiologia do CC. / The Asiatic Citrus Canker (ACC), caused by Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri ( Xac) is one of the most serious problems of citrus in São Paulo State, Brazil. After the introduction of Citrus Leafminer (CLM), Phyllocnistis citrella, the behavior of ACC changed drastically, becoming more severe. To understand the interaction of Xac and CLM on Tahiti Lime, it were, under controlled conditions, carried three experiments: (A) influence of the way of Xac penetration (stomata, mechanical wound and CLM injury of the stage: egg, 1st instar, 3rd instar and pupa) and of the inoculum concentrations of 10 1 , 10 2 , 10 4 and 10 6 CFU/mL in the Xac infection; (B) effect of the age of mechanical wound, of CLM injury and of unwounded leaf in the progress of the ACC; (C) influence of the temperature and of the period of leaf wetness in the development of the ACC. In the experiment A, the minimum inoculum concentration to cause ACC by penetration of Xac through stomata was of 10 4 CFU/mL; 10 2 CFU /mL by mechanical wound and CLM injury of egg stage and 1st instar; and 10 1 CFU /mL by injury of 3rd instar and pupa stage. The injury of 3rd instar and pupa stage have generated higher severity in relation to other ways of penetration on all concentrations (about 6 times more than the severity in unwounded leaf on 10 6 CFU /mL). The severities in leaf with mechanical wound and with injury of egg stage and 1st instar have not differed from the unwounded leaf. In the experiment B, the mechanical wound between 0 and 6 days (0-6 days of age), the CLM injury between 0 and 32 days after eggs laying of P. citrella (0-32 days of age) and unwounded leaf between 5 and 35 days (5-35 days of age) have shown susceptibility to Xac. The severity decreased linearly with increasing age of the wound and age of unwounded leaf. In relation to age of injury, the severity varied in function of generalized Beta model and the inflection point was 18 days. The maximum severity in leaf with injury was 10 times bigger than in unwounded leaf. In the experiment C, the optimum conditions appearance of lesions and 100% of incidence were 25-35ºC under minimum wetness duration of 4 hours. The Beta-monomolecular function provided a good description of severity variation in relation to the temperature and duration of leaf wetness. The estimated minimum and maximum temperatures were 14.9 and 42ºC. The estimated maximum severity was determined under wetness of 24 hours and 31.7ºC. In general, the LMC injury (up to 3rd instar stage) has influenced in the Xac infection, it has increased the efficiency of bacterium penetration still on low inoculum concentration and it has allowed Xac infection for long period (32 days). In leaf with CLM injury, the severity can be 10 times bigger than in unwounded leaf. The Xac infection is favored under 25-35ºC and the Xac does not demand long periods of leaf wetness (more than 4 hours).

"April 2001" / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 198-214) / xv, 214, [12] leaves : ill. ; 30 cm. / Title page, contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University Library. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, Dept. of Agronomy and Farming Systems, 2005

Bibliography: leaves 158-176. / xxii, 200 leaves : ill. (chiefly col.) ; 30 cm. / Title page, contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University Library. / Yield variation of faba bean in southern Australia is associated with seasonal and site variation in stress levels during podsetting and podfilling. This study examined the development of pods and seed growth in the field; quantified the effects of water stress and temperature on pod and seed development; quantified the importance of stem and podwall dry matter to seed growth and seed yield and examined the importance of genotype to these responses. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, Dept. of Plant Science, 1995

Bibliography: leaves 158-176. Yield variation of faba bean in southern Australia is associated with seasonal and site variation in stress levels during podsetting and podfilling. This study examined the development of pods and seed growth in the field; quantified the effects of water stress and temperature on pod and seed development; quantified the importance of stem and podwall dry matter to seed growth and seed yield and examined the importance of genotype to these responses.

Graduation date: 2006 / Most vertebrates exhibit seasonality in many life history traits. Such seasonal rhythms are temporally organized via the transduction of environmental cues (e.g., photoperiod, temperature) into appropriate endocrine signals. However, among ectothermic vertebrates that undergo continuous winter dormancy, temperature is the only environmental cue available for synchronizing seasonal rhythms. Most intriguing is that in species where reproduction occurs immediately following spring emergence, the associated changes in neurophysiology and behavior that accompany reproduction likely occur during winter dormancy. The purpose of this dissertation research was to explore the mechanisms by which temperature cues affect the chronobiology and seasonal reproduction of red-sided garter snakes (Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis). Because of their roles in circadian organization and energy balance, melatonin and corticosterone are likely hormonal components of these time-keeping systems. I first characterized the interactions between melatonin and corticosterone to better understand the hormonal mechanisms facilitating temperature-induced reproduction. Melatonin and corticosterone additively inhibit reproductive behavior during the spring mating season. Experimental manipulations with a serotonin receptor antagonist suggest the mechanism underlying these effects involves a serotonin-regulated system. Although melatonin does not influence corticosterone responses to capture stress, capture stress significantly increases melatonin concentrations. To investigate the functional significance of these interactions in regulating temperature-induced reproduction, I measured body temperatures of snakes as well as circadian melatonin and corticosterone cycles during winter dormancy and spring emergence using a combination of field and laboratory experiments. Surprisingly, an increase in body temperature is not necessary for emergence from winter dormancy. Rather, critically low temperatures may serve as a zeitgeber entraining an endogenous circannual cycle that regulates emergence. Decreased environmental temperatures, in the absence of changing photoperiod cues, modulate circadian melatonin and corticosterone rhythms during hibernation. Such temperature-induced changes in hormone rhythms may facilitate seasonal reproductive behavior following spring emergence. Furthermore, a phase-shift in corticosterone rhythms during the mating season may regulate the seasonal transition between reproductive and non-reproductive states in red-sided garter snakes. Such studies investigating the environmental and hormonal mechanisms underlying time-keeping systems may provide valuable insight into the potential impact of environmental perturbations (e.g., climate change) on seasonal rhythms in physiology and behavior.