<p>A method to establish the boundaries of the sensitive volume for a chosen detector to within 50µm (as specified by Elekta Instuments AB) was investigated and is presented in this project. The detector studied was fixed to a positioning system with possibility to move with sub micrometer increments, and scanned in a narrow photon field. The detectors used for the experiment were silicon diodes and a pair of diamond detectors. The silicon diodes showed great promise for future study; two radiotherapy silicon diodes and one electrical component silicon diode were used. The electrical component silicon diode produced a surprisingly sharp dose profile compared with the medical silicon diodes. The diamond detectors gave no stable results at all.</p><p>As a radiation source 60Co proved most feasible, but a diagnostic x-ray source was also tested as well as a 99mTc source. These radiation sources were also examined with a modified Penelope code, i.e. Monte Carlo simulations. What became very obvious with the Monte Carlo simulations was the importance of the line up, which was never satisfactory.</p><p>To limit the sensitive volume of these detectors to within the desired boundaries showed great difficulty and was not achieved in this project.</p>

A method to establish the boundaries of the sensitive volume for a chosen detector to within 50µm (as specified by Elekta Instuments AB) was investigated and is presented in this project. The detector studied was fixed to a positioning system with possibility to move with sub micrometer increments, and scanned in a narrow photon field. The detectors used for the experiment were silicon diodes and a pair of diamond detectors. The silicon diodes showed great promise for future study; two radiotherapy silicon diodes and one electrical component silicon diode were used. The electrical component silicon diode produced a surprisingly sharp dose profile compared with the medical silicon diodes. The diamond detectors gave no stable results at all. As a radiation source 60Co proved most feasible, but a diagnostic x-ray source was also tested as well as a 99mTc source. These radiation sources were also examined with a modified Penelope code, i.e. Monte Carlo simulations. What became very obvious with the Monte Carlo simulations was the importance of the line up, which was never satisfactory. To limit the sensitive volume of these detectors to within the desired boundaries showed great difficulty and was not achieved in this project.

We present the phase behavior of soft sphere colloidal dispersions. The pH responsive and thermoresponsive microgels, poly(N-isopropylacrylamide-co-acrylic acid) (pNIPAm-co-AAc), were used as a new building block of colloidal crystals. The phase behavior of microgel dispersions was studied by different methods such as optical microscopy, particle trajectories, mean squared displacement (MSD) vs. lag time plots and radial distribution function. The results show that the phase of the sample relies on the particle concentration for dispersions of the same pH. As the pH approaches the pKa of microgels, the microgel dispersions show unusual crystalline phase at lower effective volume fraction than hard sphere melting transition. Also, at this pH regime, the microgel dispersions undergo slow and spatially heterogeneous crystal growth. The cooperative multi-body type attractive forces were proposed to explain the unusual stability at low effective volume fraction. Ion-dipole interactions were proposed to be the origin of the attractive forces. The melting point of bulk crystals at this pH regime is much higher than the volume phase transition temperature of the building block. These results are supportive of the attractive forces hypothesis.

Les deux grands défis actuels pour l’optoélectronique térahertz (THz) sont d’une part, le besoin de miniaturiser les sources de rayonnement térahertz, et d’autre part, la nécessité d’améliorer leurs performances actuelles. Parmi les sources de rayonnement térahertz existantes, le laser à cascade quantique (QCL) est à ce jour le meilleur candidat pour remplir ces critères. Afin d’y parvenir, il faut cependant apporter des solutions aux verrous qui limitent la miniaturisation des QCLs THz. Le premier est d’ordre fondamental, et tient au fait que les dimensions des cavités photoniques usuelles sont soumises à la limite de diffraction. Le second verrou provient du fait que la recherche de compacité des sources se traduit généralement par la détérioration de leur puissance optique de sortie et de la directionnalité du faisceau laser. Une nouvelle famille de résonateurs THz métal - semiconducteur - métal (M-SC-M) est présentée de façon théorique et expérimentale. Ces dispositifs, inspirés des oscillateurs électroniques LC, ont permis d’atteindre un volume effectif record Veff=LxLyLz/λeff=5.10−6, où Lx,y,z sont les dimensions de la cavité et λeff est la longueur d’onde de résonance dans le cœur du résonateur (GaAs). Ces résonateurs hybrides photoniques-électroniques ont la particularité d’être libérés de la limite de diffraction dans les trois dimensions spatiales, et bénéficient pour la première fois de toutes les fonctionnalités habituellement réservées aux dispositifs électroniques. Une application aux polaritons inter-sousbandes THz a permis d’obtenir des résultats à l’état de l’art, démontrant d’une part que ces résonateurs hybrides conservent leurs propriétés photoniques, et d’autre part qu’ils permettent un couplage lumière-matière fort. En parallèle de ce travail, la faisabilité d’un QCL THz avec une région active extrêmement fine est démontrée expérimentalement. Une étude systématique des caractéristiques du laser en fonction de l’épaisseur de la région active (Lz) a permis la réduction de Lz=10 μm (≈λeff/2,7) jusqu’à la valeur record de Lz=1,75 μm (≈ λeff/13) dans une cavité Fabry-Pérot M-SC-M. Malgré l’augmentation des pertes optiques, l’effet laser est obtenu au-dessus de la température de l’azote liquide (78 K) pour la région active la plus fine. Ces résultats sont très encourageants pour le développement de régions actives plus performantes, et permettent d’envisager le développement de micro-cavités lasers avec des volumes effectifs extrêmement sub-longueur d’onde. Les perspectives de ce travail de thèse s’étendent de l’électrodynamique quantique en cavité au nanolaser. Les applications potentielles varient énormément en fonction de la configuration des résonateurs hybrides. Ils peuvent être utilisés comme des éléments passifs pour la détection, ou encore comme des éléments actifs tels que des antennes. Enfin, l’utilisation d’une région active fine en combinaison avec un résonateur hybride devrait permettre d’obtenir un QCL THz ultra-compact libéré de la limite de diffraction, tout en introduisant pour la première fois la possibilité d’accorder la fréquence du laser en adaptant l’impédance complexe équivalente de la combinaison d’éléments LC. / The development of terahertz (THz) optoelectronics faces two major challenges: first, a need for miniaturization of the existing radiative sources, and second, an improvement of their performances. Amongst the current sources of THz radiation, quantum cascade lasers (QCLs) represent to date the best candidates to match these two requirements. The integration of compact sources necessarily results in decreased optical output power and laser beam directionality. Therefore, a considerable amelioration of the active region performances must be achieved in parallel with the miniaturization of the dimensions of the photonic cavity. Because the latter are subject to the diffraction limit, which imposes on at least one dimension to be of the order of the effective half wavelength, further miniaturization of photonic devices requires a new approach. In this manuscript, a new class of metal-semiconductor-metal (M-SC-M) THz resonators is presented, both theoretically and experimentally. These devices, inspired by electronic LC resonators, allow to achieve a record effective volume Veff =LxLyLz/λeff =5.10-6, where Lx,y,z are the cavity dimensions and λeff is the effective wavelength resonance inside of the resonator core (GaAs). These devices are intrinsically free from the diffraction limit in the three spatial dimensions, and present the typical functionalities which are usually found only in a resonant electronic circuit. In order to demonstrate that their photonic properties are preserved, these devices have been successfully applied to THz intersubband polariton, demonstrating at the same time that they can be used for strong light-matter coupling. In parallel to this work, the feasibility of a THz QCL operating at λ=100 microns with an extremely thin active region is demonstrated experimentally. A systematic study of the laser characteristics for different thicknesses of the active region (Lz ) resulted in the reduction of Lz = 10 microns (≈λeff/2.7) down to the record value of Lz = 1.75 microns (≈λeff/13) in a M-SC-M Fabry-Perot waveguide. Despite a strong increase in optical losses, lasing is maintained above liquid nitrogen temperature (78 K) in the device with thinnest active region. This unexpected behavior is attributed to the existence of a large fraction of the current flowing through the active region at laser threshold being non-radiative. These results are very promising for future developments of efficient THz QCL active regions, as well as for fabrication of microcavity lasers with extremely low effective volumes. The perspectives of this work extend from cavity quantum electrodynamics to the development of a nanolasers. Potential applications of hybrid resonators can span over a broad range, depending on the chosen configuration. They can be used as passive elements for detection, as well as active elements such as antennas. Finally, the use of a thin active region in combination with an optimized version of these hybrid resonators should allow for the realization of an ultra-compact THz QCL free from the diffraction limit, with the possibility of fine tuning the laser frequency by adapting the equivalent complex impedance combination of the LC elements.

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