This study demonstrates a high-performance capillary electrophoresis electrochemical (CE-EC) microchip featuring embedded the palladium nanoelectrode ensemble (Pd-NEE) as the decoupler. The Pd-NEE is fabricated utilizing a new composition of electroless plating bath for depositing palladium in the porous polycarbonate thin film. Palladium has the adsorbability and permeability to hydrogen, such that the produced Pd-NEE is able to eliminate the hydrogen formation from the high separation voltage and to reduce the background current for electrochemical detection. Moreover, this study adopts the oxygen plasma to etch the nanoelectrode ensemble to enlarge the exposed surface areas to further enhance the decoupling performance of the Pd-NRE. Experimental results show that the developed Pd-NEE decoupler is capable of decoupling the electrophoretic current such that the hydrogen formation on the electrochemical electrodes was suppressed. Results indicate the developed Pd-NEE decoupler greatly enhance the S/N ratio for the electrochemical signal and lower the detectable concentration for the bio-sample of the dopamine and catechol. The detection limit of dopamine and catechol are 50 nM and 100 nM using the microchip with the Pd-NEE decoupler. Furthermore, results also indicate that the palladium nanorod ensemble (Pd-NRE) decoupler produced using the oxygen plasma etching of Pd-NEE have better electrochemical detection performance in compared with the Pd-NEE decoupler. The background current of the electrochemical detection obtained with the microchip with Pd-NRE decoupler is about 5.6 pA at applied electric field of 800 V/cm electric field. In addition, combining the gold nanorod ensemble (GNRE) as the working electrode, the detection limit is lower to 10 nM and 50 nM, respectively. This study presents a high efficiency CE-EC microchip with a Pd-NRE decoupler and a GNRE working electrode which not only decreases the background current but improves the detection limit.

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Este trabalho descreve a construção e avaliação de um detector condutométrico sem contato (oscilométrico) para sua aplicação em eletroforese capilar de zona e cromatografia micelar eletrocinética (MEKC). A construção do detector contou com a avaliação de diversos materiais e métodos para a confecção dos eletrodos, tão bem como o aperfeiçoamento do seu circuito eletrônico. O seu comportamento e desempenho foram verificados através do estudo dos diversos parâmetros que influenciam sua resposta, como freqüência e amplitude do sinal aplicado, temperatura e condutividade do meio. Além disso, a simulação do circuito equivalente da cela de detecção auxiliou no entendimento das propriedades do detector frente a alterações na condutividade do meio, na freqüência de operação e nas dimensões da cela. A otimização dos parâmetros operacionais foi racionalizada pela formulação de equações analíticas que descrevem o fator de resposta do detector a partir de parâmetros obtidos experimentalmente. Para o desenvolvimento do sistema de detecção, dois equipamentos completos de eletroforese capilar foram construídos. Sistemas de injeção de amostra por pressão, por gravidade, e eletrocinética foram desenvolvidos. Um dos equipamentos permite que a injeção da amostra seja feita do lado aterrado da fonte de alta tensão. Conseqüentemente, o detector é posicionado próximo do ponto de aplicação da alta tensão. Este é, de que se tem notícia, o primeiro sistema de detecção eletroquímico para eletroforese capilar com essa característica. A termostatização dos capilares foi efetuada por convecção forçada de ar. De maneira a aumentar o grau de automação e facilitar o seu manuseio, os dois equipamentos foram interfaceados a microcomputador. Os equipamentos de eletroforese com detecção oscilométrica construídos permitiram a análise de diversas substâncias em matrizes variadas, como por exemplo íons orgânicos e inorgânicos em água de chuva e material particulado, ácidos graxos de cadeia linear em gordura de coco, formaldeído na fase gasosa da atmosfera, e, pela primeira vez, espécies neutras, como álcoois alifáticos, separadas por MEKC. / This work describes the construction and evaluation of a contactless conductometric (or oscillometric) detector, for its application in capillary zone electrophoresis and micellar electrokinetic chromatography (MEKC). The materials and methods used for the construction of the electrodes, as well as the improvements on the electronic circuit, were evaluated. The behavior and performance of the detector were studied by changing the parameters that affect its response, e. g., the frequency and amplitude of the input signal, temperature and solution conductivity. The simulation of the cell equivalent electric circuit helped to understand the detector properties related to the variations in the solution conductivity, frequency, and cell dimensions. The optimization of the parameters was conducted by the formulation of analytical equations that describe the response factor using experimental data. For the detection development, two complete capillary electrophoresis equipments were constructed. Pressure, gravity, and electrokinetic sample injection systems were developed. One of the equipments allows the sample injection on the grounded side of the capillary. Consequently, the detector is placed near the high voltage application point. This is the first electrochemical detector described for capillary electrophoresis with this characteristic. The capillary thermostating was made by passing a forced air stream. Both equipments were interfaced to microcomputers. The capillary electrophoresis equipments with oscillometric detection were applied to the analysis of many types of compounds in different matrices, such as organic and inorganic ions in rainwater and particulate material, fatty acids in cocoa oil, formaldehyde in the atmosphere and, for the first time, neutral species, like aliphatic alcohols, separated by MEKC.

Este trabalho descreve o desenvolvimento de microchips para eletroforese a partir dos processos de impressão direta e fotolitográfico. A estrutura dos microcanais fabricados pelo processo de impressão direta são definidos por filmes de poliéster (base e tampa) e por uma camada de toner (paredes). A caracterização da superfície e da composição do toner foram necessárias para um melhor entendimento da composição química da estrutura dos microcanais e para este propósito foram utilizadas diferentes técnicas como análise elementar de CHN-O, AFM, EDX e MEV. Além da química do toner as dimensões limites para os canais, como largura e altura, também foram estudadas. A aplicação de um efeito de cinza nos microcanais foi avaliado de modo a desenvolver um dispositivo de pré-concentração usando as partículas de toner como obstáculos para o fluxo. Os microdispositivos fabricados em poliéster-toner foram integrados com detecção amperométrica no final do canal de separação usando eletrodos produzidos a partir da combinação das tecnologias da produção de máscaras de toner e CDs, como fonte de ouro. O desempenho destes microchips foi avaliado com detecção amperométrica da separação eletroforética de iodeto e ascorbato. Os limites de detecção obtidos foram de 500 nmol L-1 (135 amol) e 1,2 mmol L-1 (486 amol) para o iodeto e ascorbato, respectivamente. Além do processo de impressão direta, o processo fotolitográfico também foi utilizado para a mesma finalidade. Neste processo foi utilizado o fotorresiste negativo SU-8 e microdispositivos com área de 1 cm2 foram fabricados usando diferentes substratos como vidro, silício e alumina. A alumina apresentou muitas irregularidades para os microdispositivos fabricados. Problemas com a absorção e dispersão da radiação ultravioleta foram observados. No entanto, a alumina foi um excelente material para as etapas de produção de dois moldes metálicos para a rápida produção de dispositivos poliméricos. Um molde com uma geometria complexa foi obtido para estudar um novo sistema de injeção e um segundo molde foi preparado para avaliar o uso de uma borracha de silicone como material moldante. Além disso, este trabalho também apresenta o desenvolvimento de um dispositivo microfabricado com eletrodos completamente integrados para separação e detecção eletroquímica. Eletrodos de ouro ou de titânio/platina foram obtidos através da técnica lift-off. As máscaras para a fabricação de moldes metálicos e dos dispositivos integrados foram preparadas em fotolito de alta resolução. / This work describes the development of electrophoresis microchip fabricated by direct-printing and photolithographic processes. The channel structures of the devices fabricated by direct-printing process are defined by polyester films (base and cover) and by a toner layer (walls). The characterization of toner surface and composition were necessary for a better understanding of the chemistry composition and for this purpose we have used different techniques such as CHN-O elemental analysis, AFM, EDX and SEM. Besides the chemistry of toner, the possible dimensions for the channels as the depth and the width were also studied. The application of a gray-scale effect in the channels was evaluated in order to create a preconcentration device using the toner particles as obstacles for the flow. The polyester-toner microdevices were coupled with end-channel amperometric detection using electrodes produced by combination of the toner masks laser-printing and compact discs as a gold source. The performance of this electrophoresis microchip was evaluated by amperometric detection of iodide and ascorbate. The detection limits found were 500 nmol L-1 (135 amol) and 1.2 mmol L-1 (486 amol) for iodide and ascorbate, respectively. Besides the direct-printing process, the photolithographic process was also used for this purpose. In this process it was used the SU-8 negative photoresist and microdevices with 1-cm2 area were fabricated using different substrates such as glass, silicon and alumina. The alumina presented several irregularities for the microdevices fabricated. Problems with the absorption and dispersion of ultraviolet radiation were observed. However, the alumina was an excellent material for the steps in the production of two metallic molds for fast production of PDMS devices. One mold with complex geometry was obtained in order to study a new injection system and a second mold was prepared to evaluate the use of silicon rubber as molding material. Furthermore, in this work it was also reported the development of a microfabricated device with fully integrated electrodes for separation and electrochemical detection. The gold or titanium/platinum electrodes were obtained by lift-off technique. The masks for fabrication of the metallic molds and of the integrated microdevices were prepared in transparency films with high resolution.

No description available.

This work describes the integration of a separation capillary for capillary electrophoresis (CE) with an on-column enzyme reactor for selective determination of the enzyme substrate. The enzyme reaction occurs during a capillary separation, allowing selective determination of the substrate in complex samples without the need for pre- or post- separation chemical modification of the analyte. The overall goal of this work is to develop a system in which sample introduction, separation of the analyte/substrate from other biological species, enzymatic conversion of the analyte/substrate into a detectable product, and sensitive detection are all included within a single analysis scheme. Immobilization of the enzyme is achieved by electrostatic assembly of poly(diallydimethylammonium chloride) (PDDA) followed by adsorption of a mixture of the negatively charged enzyme glucose oxidase (GOx) and anionic poly(styrenesulfonate) (PSS). The reaction of glucose with the immobilized glucose oxidase produces H2O2 which migrates the length of the capillary under the influence of electroosmotic flow and is detected amperometrically at the capillary outlet. The optimal response, kinetics, and stability for the enzyme reactor are determined through characterization of several parameters including the concentration ratio of PSS:GOx, applied separation voltage, and the inner diameter of the separation capillary. Various analyte mixtures containing the substrate and other biological species were evaluated to illustrate selective separation and determination of the substrate from other biomolecules. Optimization of this electrostatically assembled capillary enzyme reactor lead to application of these parameters to similar enzymes such as glutamate oxidase. Future application to similar enzymes like L-amino acid oxidase and possible microfluidic systems is a long-term goal of the system. / Ph. D.

An effective electrochemical sensor for myoglobin (Myb) detection was developed using a simple procedure of denaturing the protein with guanidine hydrochloride and detecting the released heme group by cyclic voltammetry. The concentration of denaturant was optimized to obtain maximum current response for the analyte (Myb). To improve the sensitivity of the sensor, the working electrode, glassy carbon electrode was modified with a layer of Titania nanotubes (TNT). The direct electrochemical behavior of the modified electrode (TNT-GCE) was studied using cyclic voltammetry (CV). The performance of the sensor was investigated and optimized and the system was evaluated by monitoring the Myb concentration. Despite the reduced current response for the modified electrode compared to bare GCE, the sensitivity of the system was improved significantly by overcoming the large background current due to denaturant. The developed TNT modified electrode improved the detection limit of Myb and showed good stability, sensitivity and reproducibility. Under optimal conditions, the catalytic currents are linearly proportional to the concentrations of Myb in the wide range from 50 nM to 6 M. This approach provides improved sensitivity in the given range, and may provide a novel and efficient platform for the fabrication of sensors for other heme proteins.

Thesis (MSc (Chemistry and Polymer Science))--Stellenbosch University, 2008. / There are various mercury species in the environment and their toxicity and availability relies on their chemical form and oxidation states. Inorganic and organic mercury is found to co-exist in water and body tissue of some organisms. Among them inorganic mercury has a lower toxicity than the organic mercury. Methyl mercury (CH3Hg+) is the most toxic species found in the environment because it can enter the food chain accumulating and contaminating humans. Hence the total mercury concentration does not reflect the important information and thus the needs for the development of methods for the simultaneously separating and determination of mercury species. A study of the electrochemistry of mercury and organo mercury complexes with cysteine and dithizone indicated the formation of stable complexes, which can be utilized for the determination of the species in environmental matrices. Cyclic voltammetry is used to determine the electrochemical properties of the complexes. A technique based on capillary electrophoresis and amperometric detection (CE-AD) has been developed for the speciation of mercury. This technique has the capability to detect mercury species that are electrochemically active. Using capillary electrophoresis in combination with electrochemical detection makes speciation of the complexes possible at lower than normal concentrations. For CE-AD the detection limits were 0.005 μg/L for Hg2+ and 0.4 μg/L for MeHg+. These detection sensitivities are attractive for environmental monitoring.

We have investigated electropolymerisation for fabrication of a chemically modified working electrode for the determination of dopamine and catechol neurotransmitters in the presence of ascorbic acid. A variety of film compositions were investigated that would allow discrimination of the neurotransmitters through a combination of electrostatic barrier and the film porosity. The films investigated were based on different compositions of () poly-o-toluidine-co-aniline (POT-co-PA), () poly-o-toluidine-co-o-anisidine (POT-co-POA) and () polyacriflavine (PAF). The POT-co-PA and POT-co-POA gave the most promising result although the POT-co-PA was preferred because of higher current enhancement and better separation of dopamine and catechol neurotransmitters in the presence of ascorbic acid. The uses of electropolymerisation make the investigated films attractive candidates for the fabrication of a chemically modified microelectrode with application in capillary electrophoresis separation with electrochemical detection. The active area of nano particle (Au, Pt and Ag) screen printed electrodes was determined using cyclic voltammogram with ferro/ferricyanide couple. The active surface of the nano particle coated electrode was found surprisingly to be 5% - 65% lower than that geometrically calculated surface area for the electrode. This is ascribed to the limitation of the screen printing approach that was used. A low cost high replication approach that would allow development of a capillary electrophoresis microfluidic chip with electrochemical detection (CE-ECD) on a polymer substrate was investigated. A fluidic top layer was fabricated using hot embossing and an electrode bottom layer by metal patterning on a polymer substrate using metallisation and photolithography.