Aus der Einleitung: "Das selektive Elektronenstrahlschmelzen (engl. Electron Beam Melting (EBM®)) ist ein pulverbettbasiertes additives Fertigungsverfahren, mit dessen Hilfe metallische Bauteile schichtweise hergestellt werden können. Der schematische Aufbau einer entsprechenden Anlage ist in Abbildung 4 dargestellt. Dabei erfolgt die Strahlerzeugung im Bereich 1 (die Kathode besteht entweder aus Wolfram oder bei den neuesten Systemen aus einkristallinem LaB6). Die Strahlablenkung durch ein elektromagnetisches Linsensystem erfolgt im Bereich 2. Der Bereich 3 ist die eigentliche Baukammer, in der sich unter anderem die Vorratsbehälter für das Pulver, das Rakelsystem sowie die Komponenten des Bauraums (Käfig mit Hitzeschild, Bauplattform mit Startplatte) befinden. ..."

In computed tomography (CT) cross-sectional images of the attenuation distribution within a slice are created by scanning radiographic projections of an object with a rotating X-ray source detector compound and subsequent reconstruction of the images from these projection data on a computer. CT can be made very fast by employing a scanned electron beam instead of a mechanically moving X-ray source. Now this principle was extended towards high-energy electron beam tomography with an electrostatic accelerator. Therefore a dedicated experimental campaign was planned and carried out at the Budker Insitute of Nuclear Physics (BINP), Novosibirsk. There we investigated the capabilities of BINP’s accelerators as an electron beam generating and scanning unit of a potential high-energy electron beam tomography device. The setup based on a 1 MeV ELV-6 (BINP) electron accelerator and a single detector. Besides tomographic measurements with different phantoms, further experiments were carried out concerning the focal spot size and repeat accuracy of the electron beam as well as the detector’s response time and signal to noise ratio.

The majority of literature regarding the numerical simulation of arc discharges in gaseous environments has used a plasma physics approach. Virtually all simulations treat the discharge as an idealized gaseous plasma, which can be described by temperature, pressure, and electric field. This approach can work well if the media is a shielding gas such as Argon; however, the approach does not work well for processes such as underwater welding, EDM, and underwater discharges used to generate high purity particles. The reason these discharges do not have many extensive simulation efforts as described in the literature is because they occur in liquid dielectric media (Oil and water) which complicates the simulation efforts. Most research efforts in these areas describe experimental methods to evaluate discharge properties In this research a new method to investigate discharges in a dielectric media using an electrostatic and particle physics approach is proposed and validated. A commercial code that has been developed to simulate charged particle beams, dielectric materials, and perform multi-physics analyses, is the Vector Fields suite of solvers from Cobham Technical Services. This research demonstrates a simulation methodology that can be used to simulate a DC electric arc discharge in a lossy dielectric media using the Vector Fields environment. This simulation is the first of its kind to simulate this type of a discharge with a commercial FEA code. As such there are some limitations to the simulation. However, the simulation can be used to investigate the following: 1.Any metal, electrode geometry, discharge gap, or dielectric media can be studied 2.Primary Beam Physics – Electron velocity/acceleration (direct calculation of electron temperature) – Energy deposition on the anode from all emission sources – Effect of dielectric media on beam physics (trajectories, velocity, constriction, beam induced magnetic fields, space chare, and secondary emission) – Beam current – Particle trajectories (including relativistic effects) 3. Secondary Particle Generation and physics – Atomic species (neutral particles or ions) and secondary electron emission – Particle trajectories – Back ion bombardment on the cathode

Introduction: Production systems go through changes over time and there are different factors driving the change. Metal Additive manufacturing (AM) could be a factor with industries that already havetaken interest in the manufacturing technique. Qualification and standards of manufacturing guide consistent product quality and could face challenges when implementing AM. However,most publications about metal AM are currently posted from a material point of view. This requires more publications with comprehensive overviews of metal AM and dive deeper into metal AMs industry applications, limitations and challenges. Purpose: The purpose of this thesis is to identify challenges that may arise in the implementation of AM. The intention is also to compare the conventional method of sand casting with AM for metal production targeted at excavators. This is accomplished by specifically highlighting the metallurgical benefits of AM. Research Questions: RQ1: What challenges arise when qualifying AM products for excavators? RQ2: What are the metallurgical benefits of an AM produced product in comparison to a Sand Casted product for excavator bucket teeth? Method: An inductive approach has been taken, with a literature, empirical and case study conducted.The construction of the theoretical framework used information from scientific articles and books. The findings of the empirical study arrived from information gathered through observations and experimentation, with help and interpretation from the case companies. The empirical findings will assist in answering the research questions. The case study consisted of metallurgical testing in form of porosity analysis, microstructure examination, hardness- and chemical composition test. Conclusion: Several challenges were discovered that will impact the qualification of AM products. These can affect the results derived from the case study, providing incorrect data. It can however be seen as beneficial as it provides knowledge of how to reduce or eliminate their impact withfuture analyses.The AM products tested, displayed positive metallurgical properties in comparison with sand casted products. A standout trait was the consistency in the dimension and density of the AM products, displaying how AM can create nearly identical products.

Biocatalytic membrane reactors combine the highly efficient biotransformation capability of enzymes with the selective filtration performance of membrane filters. Common strategies to immobilize enzymes on polymeric membranes are based on chemical coupling reactions. Still, they are associated with drawbacks such as long reaction times, high costs, and the use of potentially toxic or hazardous reagents. In this study, a reagent-free immobilization method based on electron beam irradiation was investigated, which allows much faster, cleaner, and cheaper fabrication of enzyme membrane reactors. Two industrial lipase enzymes were coupled onto a polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) flat sheet membrane to create self-cleaning surfaces. The response surface methodology (RSM) in the design-of-experiments approach was applied to investigate the effects of three numerical factors on enzyme activity, yielding a maximum activity of 823 118 U m2 (enzyme concentration: 8.4 g L1, impregnation time: 5 min, irradiation dose: 80 kGy). The lipolytic membranes were used in fouling tests with olive oil (1 g L1 in 2 mM sodium dodecyl sulfate), resulting in 100% regeneration of filtration performance after 3 h of self-cleaning in an aqueous buffer (pH 8, 37 C). Reusability with three consecutive cycles demonstrates regeneration of 95%. Comprehensive membrane characterization was performed by determining enzyme kinetic parameters, permeance monitoring, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, FTIR spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and zeta potential, as well as water contact angle measurements.

Biological hydrogels are highly promising materials for bone tissue engineering (BTE) due to their high biocompatibility and biomimetic characteristics. However, for advanced and customized BTE, precise tools for material stabilization and tuning material properties are desired while optimal mineralisation must be ensured. Therefore, reagent-free crosslinking techniques such as high energy electron beam treatment promise effective material modifications without formation of cytotoxic by-products. In the case of the hydrogel gelatin, electron beam crosslinking further induces thermal stability enabling biomedical application at physiological temperatures. In the case of enzymatic mineralisation, induced by Alkaline Phosphatase (ALP) and mediated by Calcium Glycerophosphate (CaGP), it is necessary to investigate if electron beam treatment before mineralisation has an influence on the enzymatic activity and thus affects the mineralisation process. The presented study investigates electron beam-treated gelatin hydrogels with previously incorporated ALP and successive mineralisation via incubation in a medium containing CaGP. It could be shown that electron beam treatment optimally maintains enzymatic activity of ALP which allows mineralisation. Furthermore, the precise tuning of material properties such as increasing compressive modulus is possible. This study characterizes the mineralised hydrogels in terms of mineral formation and demonstrates the formation of CaP in dependence of ALP concentration and electron dose. Furthermore, investigations of uniaxial compression stability indicate increased compression moduli for mineralised electron beam-treated gelatin hydrogels. In summary, electron beam-treated mineralized gelatin hydrogels reveal good cytocompatibility for MG-63 osteoblast like cells indicating a high potential for BTE applications.

Networks of crosslinked keratin filaments are abundant in epithelial cells and tissues, providing resilience against mechanical forces and ensuring cellular integrity. Although studies of in vitro models of reconstituted keratin networks have revealed important mechanical aspects, the mechanical properties of crosslinked keratin structures remain poorly understood. Here, we exploited the power of electron beam irradiation (EBI) to crosslink in vitro networks of soft epithelial keratins 8 and 18 (k8–k18) filaments with different irradiation doses (30 kGy, 50 kGy, 80 kGy, 100 kGy, and 150 kGy). We combined bulk shear rheology with confocal microscopy to investigate the impact of crosslinking on the mechanical and structural properties of the resultant keratin gels. We found that irradiated keratin gels display higher linear elastic modulus than the unirradiated, entangled networks at all doses tested. However, at the high doses (80 kGy, 100 kGy, and 150 kGy), we observed a remarkable drop in the elastic modulus compared to 50 kGy. Intriguingly, the irradiation drastically changed the behavior for large, nonlinear deformations. While untreated keratin networks displayed a strong strain stiffening, increasing irradiation doses shifted the system to a strain softening behavior. In agreement with the rheological behavior in the linear regime, the confocal microscopy images revealed fully isotropic networks with high percolation in 30 kGy and 50 kGy-treated keratin samples, while irradiation with 100 kGy induced the formation of thick bundles and clusters. Our results demonstrate the impact of permanent crosslinking on k8–k18 mechanics and provide new insights into the potential contribution of intracellular covalent crosslinking to the loss of mechanical resilience in some human keratin diseases. These insights will also provide inspiration for the synthesis of new keratin-based biomaterials.

Bacterial pathogens cause severe infections worldwide in livestock and in humans, and antibiotic resistance further increases the importance of prophylactic vaccines. Inactivated bacterial vaccines (bacterins) are usually produced via incubation of the pathogen with chemicals such as formaldehyde, which is time consuming and may cause loss of immunogenicity due to the modification of structural components. We evaluated low-energy electron irradiation (LEEI) as an alternative method to generate a bacterin. Rodentibacter pneumotropicus, an invasive Gram-negative murine pathogen, was inactivated with LEEI and formaldehyde. LEEI resulted in high antigen conservation, and LPS activity was significantly better maintained when compared with formaldehyde treatment. Immunization of mice with LEEI-inactivated R. pneumotropicus elicited a strong immune response with no detectable bacterial burden upon sublethal challenge. The results of this study suggest the inactivation of bacteria with LEEI as an alternative, fast and efficient method to generate bacterial vaccines with increased efficacy.

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