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Microwave tubes are the choice of a wide range of high power and millimeter wave applications in radar, electronic warfare and communication systems. Advances in these devices are due to device innovation, improved modeling, and development of advanced materials. In a microwave tube, electron emitter is the source of electron beam and it is one of the vital components determining the life & performance of the device. High power, high frequency microwave tubes require electron emitters with high emission density. The present thesis aims at developing the materials for high emission density electron emitters. It is aimed to improve the emission density of thermionic cathodes for use in conventional microwave tubes and to develop cold emitters like ferroelectric cathodes for high power microwave devices. The work reported in the present thesis is a modest attempt of the author towards this aim. The thesis is organized in six chapters. Chapter 1 gives a brief introduction of thermionic and ferroelectric emitters. Different types of electron emission mechanisms and a brief background of thermionic and ferroelectricemitters are discussed in this chapter. The genesis of the problem taken up and its importance as well as the plan and scope of the work is also given in this chapter. In Chapter 2, the basic experimental techniques used in the present work are discussed. Preparation of mixed metal matrix and M- type dispenser cathodes and their characterization techniques has been discussed in this chapter. Subsequently, ferroelectric materials preparation and characterization for their material properties and electron emission has been discussed. A brief introduction to FEM software ANSYS, used for thermal analysis of dispenser cathodes and electrostatic field analysis of ferroelectric cathodes, has been given at the end of this chapter. Thermal analysis, development process, emission characterization, work function distribution, of W-Ir mixed metal matrix (MM type) cathodes and a simple innovative technique to estimate the barium evaporation rate from the emission data of the dispenser cathodes is presented in Chapter 3. Under normal microwave tube operating conditions, the cathode of the electron gun has to be heated up to 1050°C to obtain stable thermionic electron emission. Thermal analysis is a first step in the development process of cathodes, optimizing its structure for improved performance with respect to its operating power, warm-up time and efficiency. Thermal analysis of a dispenser cathode in electron gun environment using the FEM software ANSYS and its experimental validation are presented. Development of porous W-Ir mixed metal matrix material required for dispenser cathode applications has been discussed. Determination of pore size, pore density and pore uniformity has been carried out. The performance of the cathodes made with these pellets is at par with the results reported in the literature. The surface of mixed metal pellet is an inherently two-phase structure consisting of tungsten solid solution phase and W-Ir ε phase causing more spread in the spatial distribution of work function. W-Ir mixed metal matrix cathodes have been realized and their work function distribution has been determined form the measured I-V characteristics. Also in this chapter, a novel technique for estimation of barium evaporation rate for dispenser cathodes from their I-V characteristics is presented. Results of life test carried out on these cathodes are given at the end of the chapter. In Chapter 4, work carried out on enhancing the emission properties of mixed metal matrix cathodes by suitably modifying the impregnant mix is discussed. W-Ir MM type cathodes discussed in the previous chapter give a emission current density of ~ 7.5A/cm2 with a work function of 1.99 eV. Thesevalues are very close to that of B-type cathode. In this chapter, it is explored to suitably dope the 5BaO:3CaO:2Al2O3 impregnant mix to reduce the work function of W-Ir cathodes. Lithium and Scandium oxides have been added to the 5:3:2 imp regnant mix. Lithium oxide doped impregnated MM type cathodes have given more than 30 A/cm2 current density at 1050oC. For scandium oxide doped MM type cathodes current density has increased to 15 A/cm2 at the same temperature. In Chapter 5, Electron emission from the ferroelectric cathodes has been discussed. FEM simulation of Ferroelectric cathodes to study the electrical excitation effects on emission. Triple point electric field in FE Cathodes is very large and can lead to field emission from the metallic grid at triple points. FEM simulation has been carried out to find out the effect of grid thickness on triple junction electric field using ANSYS software. From FEM modeling it is also seen that if a dielectric layer of lower dielectric constant (εr≤10) is placed between the grid and the ferroelectric material the triple junction electric field increases three fold. Use of dielectric layer can also reduce the secondary electron coefficient (δ) and surface plasma generation. Lanthanum doped PZT has been chosen for the study and these materials have been tested in diode configuration for emission characterization in demountable vacuum systems. Repeatable electron emission has been achieved for all the three compositions of PLZT (x/65/35) material (x = 7, 8, 9). However, it has been observed that when the ferroelectric is subjected to repetitive unipolar electrical excitation, fatigue is set in and cathode material is cracking. To study the effect of domain switching on the residual stress in the ferroelectric material, XRD studies have been carried out. Shift in XRD peaks for fresh and emission tested samples has been used to calculate the residual stress developed in the samples. Details of High current switch realized using ferroelectric cathodes have been discussed. Chapter 6 gives the Summary of the work done and suggestions for further research on W-Ir mixed metal matrix cathodes and ferroelectric cathodes.

Este projeto de pesquisa foi desenvolvido visando quantificar possíveis distúrbios de vazão em emissores do tipo gotejador (irrigação localizada) submetidos à aplicação de cloro livre e acidificação em condições estática e dinâmica de fluxo de água no sistema. O experimento foi realizado no período de setembro de 2005 a junho de 2006, utilizando-se 14 modelos de gotejadores autocompensantes com suas respectivas linhas gotejadoras montadas em uma bancada de ensaios em estrutura metálica. Os tratamentos utilizados no experimento foram: a) aplicação dinâmica de 100 mg L-1 de cloro livre com pH na faixa de 5,5 a 6,0; b) aplicação estática de 100 mg L-1 de cloro livre com pH na faixa de 5,5 a 6,0; c) aplicação de ácido nítrico com pH na faixa de 2,0 a 3,0 durante ½ h (sistema pressurizado); d) aplicação de ácido nítrico com pH na faixa de 2,0 a 3,0 durante 12 h (sistema pressurizado). Foram realizadas curvas vazão versus pressão para cada tratamento em três diferentes temperaturas da água (15, 25 e 40° C). O delineamento experimental utilizado foi o inteiramente aleatorizado em esquema fatorial, com utilização dos testes ?F? para análise de variância e Tuckey, a 5% de significância, para comparação de médias e análise de regressão. Os resultados obtidos mostram que para o tratamento da água com 100 mg L-1 de cloro livre em condição dinâmica, ocorreu um decréscimo de 10 a 20% em média da vazão (L h-1) para alguns modelos de gotejadores mais sensíveis aos produtos químicos, sendo que o modelo I apresentou redução drástica de vazão na ordem de 100% em virtude do bloqueio total do labirinto do emissor, em decorrência do aumento de 112% do volume da membrana após 2688 h de aplicação contínua de cloro. Os tratamentos estáticos não apresentaram variações acentuadas de vazão média (L h-1), coeficiente de variação (%), uniformidade de distribuição (%), Vazão Relativa (%) e Grau de Entupimento (%). Verificou-se relação linear entre a vazão e a temperatura da água para os gotejadores novos, sendo que após a aplicação dos diferentes tratamentos, as curvas vazão versus pressão para cada modelo de gotejador sofreram influência tanto da pressão quanto da temperatura de maneira distinta. / This research project was developed to quantify possible flow rate variation in emitters (drip irrigation) submitted to the application of free chlorine and acidification under static and dynamics conditions of water flow. The experiment was accomplished in the period of September, 2005 to June, 2006, being analyzed 14 models of pressure compensating emitters set up in a metallic bench. The treatments used in the experiment were the following ones: a) dynamic application of 100 mg L-1 of free chlorine with pH 5,5 to 6,0; b) static application of 100 mg L-1 of free chlorine with pH 5,5 to 6,0; c) application of acid nitric with pH 2,0 to 3,0 during ½ h (pressurized system); d) application of acid nitric with pH 2,0 to 3,0 during 12 h (pressurized system). The operating pressures and emitter model combination were: 50, 100, 200, 300, 400 kPa for emitters A to N, in three different water temperatures (15, 25 and 40° C). The obtained values of flow rate were used to calculate the CUD, CV, relative flow rate, the percentage of drippers in each flow rate range, and the number of the drippers completely clogged. The statistical analysis of the treatments were accomplished by Tukey test at 5% probability. The obtained results show that for the treatment of the water with 100 mg L-1 of free chlorine in dynamic condition, a reduction from 10 to 20% of the flow rate (L h-1) occurred for some models more sensitive to chemical products. Model I presented drastic reduction of flow rate in the order of 100% by total blockade of the labyrinth of the emitter, due to the increase of 112% of the volume of the membrane after 2688 h of continuous application of 100 mg L-1 of chlorine free with pH 5,5 to 6,0. The static treatments didn\'t present accentuated variations of medium flow rate (L h-1), variation coefficient (%), distribution uniformity (%), relative flow rate (%) and degree of blockage (%). For pressure compensating emitters, where the discharge sensitivity to temperature is insignificant, after the application of the different treatments, the measured discharge/pressure relationship for each emitter model was sensitive to pressure as well to temperature.

Neste trabalho foi padronizada uma solução de 14C emissor beta puro com energia máxima de 156 keV, por meio de três diferentes métodos: CIEMAT/NIST e TDCR (triple-to-double coincidence ratio) em sistemas de cintilação líquida e pelo método do traçador, em sistema de coincidências 4πβ-γ. O sistema de cintilação líquida TRICARB, equipado com dois tubos fotomultiplicadores, foi usado para aplicação do método CIEMAT/NIST, usando um padrão de 3H emissor beta puro com energia máxima de 18,7 keV como traçador de eficiência. O sistema de cintilação líquida HIDEX 300SL, equipado com três tubos fotomultiplicadores, foi utilizado para as medidas pelo método TDCR. As amostras de 14C e 3H, medidas nos sistemas de cintilação foram preparadas usando-se três coquetéis cintiladores comerciais Ultima Gold, Optiphase Hisafe3 e InstaGel-Plus a fim de comparar seu desempenho nas medidas.Todas as amostras foram preparadas com 15 mL de coquetel cintilador, em frascos de vidro com baixa concentração de potássio. Alíquotas conhecidas de solução radioativa foram depositadas nos coquetéis cintiladores. Para a variação do parâmetro indicador de quenching, foram utilizados: um carregador de nitro metano e 1 mL de água destilada. Para a padronização pelo método do traçador no sistema de coincidências 4πβ-γ, foi utilizado 60Co como emissor beta gama. As medidas foram feitas no sistema de coincidências por software SCS, usando discriminação eletrônica para alterar a eficiência beta. O comportamento da curva de extrapolação foi predito por meio do código Esquema, que utiliza a técnica de Monte Carlo. Os resultados da atividade da solução de 14C obtida pelos três métodos utilizados mostraram uma boa concordância dentro da incerteza experimental. / In this work, the primary standardization of 14C solution, which emits beta particles of maximum energy 156 keV, was made by means of three different methods: CIEMAT/NIST and TDCR (triple-to-double coincidence ratio) methods in liquid scintillation systems and the tracing method, in the 4πβ-γ coincidence system. TRICARB LSC (Liquid Scintillator Counting) system, equipped with two photomultipliers tubes, was used for CIEMAT/NIST method, using a 3H standard that emits beta particles with maximum energy of 18.7 keV, as efficiency tracing. HIDEX 300SL LSC system, equipped with three photomultipliers tubes, was used for TDCR method. Samples of 14C and 3H, for the liquid scintillator system, were prepared using three commercial scintillation cocktails, UltimaGold, Optiphase Hisafe3 and InstaGel-Plus, in order to compare the performance in the measurements. All samples were prepared with 15 mL scintillators, in glass vials with low potassium concentration. Known aliquots of radioactive solution were dropped onto the cocktail scintillators. In order to obtain the quenching parameter curve, a nitro methane carrier solution and 1 mL of distilled water were used. For measurements in the 4πβ-γ system, 60Co was used as beta gamma emitter. SCS (software coincidence system) was applied and the beta efficiency was changed by using electronic discrimination. The behavior of the extrapolation curve was predicted with code ESQUEMA, using Monte Carlo technique. The 14C activity obtained by the three methods applied in this work was compared and the results showed to be in agreement, within the experimental uncertainty.

No presente trabalho, foram padronizados os radionuclídeos emissores beta puros 32P e 90Sr 90Y. O primeiro foi medido nos sistemas comerciais de cintilação líquida TRICARB 2100 e HIDEX 300SL, que utilizam, respectivamente, dois e três tubos fotomultiplicadores. A análise dos dados adquiridos pelo primeiro e segundo sistemas foi realizada pela aplicação dos métodos CIEMAT/NIST e TDCR, respectivamente. Para padronização da solução de 32P, foi também utilizado o sistema 4πβ empregando-se a técnica de autoabsorção. A solução de 90Sr 90Y foi padronizada no sistema de cintilação líquida, HIDEX 300SL, pelo método TDCR, e pela técnica do traçador, no sistema de coincidência 4πβ-γ o qual é composto por um contador proporcional à gás fluente, acoplado a dois cristais cintiladores de NaI(Tl). A taxa de desintegração foi determinada pela técnica de extrapolação, por meio de absorvedores externos. Para aplicação da técnica do traçador, foi utilizada uma solução de 60Co, emissor beta-gama previamente padronizado no sistema de coincidências. Foi realizada, também, uma simulação dos processos de detecção neste sistema por meio do programa ESQUEMA, que, pela simulação de Monte Carlo, prediz a curva de extrapolação da eficiência. Os resultados obtidos para o 32P nos sistemas utilizados apresentaram um bom acordo, dentro das incertezas experimentais, bem como os obtidos para o 90Sr 90Y, em sistema de cintilação e sistema de coincidência, apresentando bom acordo, dentro das incertezas experimentais. O resultado obtido pela técnica de Monte Carlo apresentou boa concordância com o valor obtido com o sistema de coincidência. Os resultados indicam a qualidade e boa precisão dos sistemas de detecção utilizados neste trabalho, quando empregados para fins metrológicos. / In the present work, pure beta emitters radionuclides 32P and 90Sr - 90Y were standardized. The first one was measured in commercial liquid scintillation systems TRICARB 2100 and HIDEX 300SL, which use, respectively, two and three photomultiplier tubes. The analysis of the data acquired by the first and second systems was performed using the CIEMAT / NIST and TDCR methods, respectively. For standardization of the 32P solution, the 4πβ system was also used, using the self-absorption technique. The 90Sr - 90Y solution was standardized in the liquid scintillation system, HIDEX 300SL, by the TDCR method, and by the tracer technique, in the coincidence system 4πβ-γ which is composed by a proportional counter to the flowing gas, coupled to two NaI(Tl) scintillation crystals. The rate of disintegration was determined by the extrapolation technique, by means of external absorbers. For the application of the tracer technique, a 60Co solution, a beta-gamma emitter previously standardized in the coincidence system, was used. It was also performed a simulation of the detection processes in this system through the program ESQUEMA, which, by Monte Carlo simulation, predicts the efficiency extrapolation curve. The results obtained for the 32P in the systems used presented a good agreement, within the experimental uncertainties, as well as those obtained for the 90Sr - 90Y, in scintillation system and coincidence system, showing good agreement, within the experimental uncertainties. The result obtained by the Monte Carlo technique showed good agreement with the value obtained with the coincidence system. The results indicate the quality and good accuracy of the detection systems used in this work, when used for metrological purposes.

No presente trabalho, foram padronizados os radionuclídeos emissores beta puros 32P e 90Sr 90Y. O primeiro foi medido nos sistemas comerciais de cintilação líquida TRICARB 2100 e HIDEX 300SL, que utilizam, respectivamente, dois e três tubos fotomultiplicadores. A análise dos dados adquiridos pelo primeiro e segundo sistemas foi realizada pela aplicação dos métodos CIEMAT/NIST e TDCR, respectivamente. Para padronização da solução de 32P, foi também utilizado o sistema 4πβ empregando-se a técnica de autoabsorção. A solução de 90Sr 90Y foi padronizada no sistema de cintilação líquida, HIDEX 300SL, pelo método TDCR, e pela técnica do traçador, no sistema de coincidência 4πβ-γ o qual é composto por um contador proporcional à gás fluente, acoplado a dois cristais cintiladores de NaI(Tl). A taxa de desintegração foi determinada pela técnica de extrapolação, por meio de absorvedores externos. Para aplicação da técnica do traçador, foi utilizada uma solução de 60Co, emissor beta-gama previamente padronizado no sistema de coincidências. Foi realizada, também, uma simulação dos processos de detecção neste sistema por meio do programa ESQUEMA, que, pela simulação de Monte Carlo, prediz a curva de extrapolação da eficiência. Os resultados obtidos para o 32P nos sistemas utilizados apresentaram um bom acordo, dentro das incertezas experimentais, bem como os obtidos para o 90Sr 90Y, em sistema de cintilação e sistema de coincidência, apresentando bom acordo, dentro das incertezas experimentais. O resultado obtido pela técnica de Monte Carlo apresentou boa concordância com o valor obtido com o sistema de coincidência. Os resultados indicam a qualidade e boa precisão dos sistemas de detecção utilizados neste trabalho, quando empregados para fins metrológicos. / In the present work, pure beta emitters radionuclides 32P and 90Sr - 90Y were standardized. The first one was measured in commercial liquid scintillation systems TRICARB 2100 and HIDEX 300SL, which use, respectively, two and three photomultiplier tubes. The analysis of the data acquired by the first and second systems was performed using the CIEMAT / NIST and TDCR methods, respectively. For standardization of the 32P solution, the 4πβ system was also used, using the self-absorption technique. The 90Sr - 90Y solution was standardized in the liquid scintillation system, HIDEX 300SL, by the TDCR method, and by the tracer technique, in the coincidence system 4πβ-γ which is composed by a proportional counter to the flowing gas, coupled to two NaI(Tl) scintillation crystals. The rate of disintegration was determined by the extrapolation technique, by means of external absorbers. For the application of the tracer technique, a 60Co solution, a beta-gamma emitter previously standardized in the coincidence system, was used. It was also performed a simulation of the detection processes in this system through the program ESQUEMA, which, by Monte Carlo simulation, predicts the efficiency extrapolation curve. The results obtained for the 32P in the systems used presented a good agreement, within the experimental uncertainties, as well as those obtained for the 90Sr - 90Y, in scintillation system and coincidence system, showing good agreement, within the experimental uncertainties. The result obtained by the Monte Carlo technique showed good agreement with the value obtained with the coincidence system. The results indicate the quality and good accuracy of the detection systems used in this work, when used for metrological purposes.

The goal of this research was to evaluate the application uniformity of subsurface drip distribution systems and the recovery of emitter flow rates. Emission volume in the field, and laboratory measured flow rates were determined for emitters from three locations. Additionally, the effects of lateral orientation with respect to slope on emitter plugging was evaluated. Two different emitters were tested to evaluate slope effects on emitter plugging (type Y and Z). The emitters were alternately spliced together and installed in an up and down orientation on slopes of 0, 1, 2 and 4% and along the contour on slopes of 1 and 2%. The emitters were covered with soil and underwent a simulated year of dosing cycles, and then flushed with a flushing velocity of 0.6 m/s. Initial flow rates for the two emitter types were 2.38 L/hr with a C.V. of 0.07. There was no significant difference in flow rates among slopes for type Y emitters, but there was a significant difference between the 1% and 2 % contour slopes for type Z emitters. Application uniformity of three different laterals at each site was evaluated. Sections of the lateral from the beginning, middle and end were excavated and emission volumes were recorded for each emitter. Application uniformity of laterals ranged from 48.69 to 9.49%, 83.55 to 72.60%, and 44.41 to 0% for sites A, B, and C, respectively. Mean emitter flow rate was 2.21, 2.24, and 2.56 L/hr for sites A, B, and C, respectively under laboratory conditions. Application uniformity under laboratory conditions ranged from 70.97 to 14.91%, 86.67 to 79.99%, and 85.04 to 0.00% for sites A, B, and C, respectively. A flushing velocity of 0.15 m/s with no chlorination, shock chlorination of 3400 mg/L and flushing velocity of 0.15 m/s, and shock chlorination of 3400 mg/L and flushing velocity of 0.6 m/s treatment regiments were applied to all laterals collected to assess emitter flow rate recovery to the nominal flow rate published by the manufacturer. All laterals showed an increase in the number of emitters within 10% of the published nominal flow rate.

A simple cost-effective approach was proposed and successfully employed to fabricate high-quality screen-printed (SP) contacts to high sheet-resistance emitters (100 ohm/sq) to improve the Si solar cell efficiency. Device modeling was used to quantify the performance enhancement possible from the high sheet-resistance emitter for various cell designs. It was found that for performance enhancement from the high sheet-resistance emitter, certain cell design criteria must be satisfied. Model calculations showed that in order to achieve any performance enhancement over the conventional ~40 ohm/sq emitter, the high sheet resistance emitter solar cell must have a reasonably good (120,000 cm/s) or low front-surface recombination velocity (FSRV). Model calculations were also performed to establish requirements for high fill factors (FFs). The results showed that the series resistance should be less than 0.8 ohm-cm^2, the shunt resistance should be greater than 1000 ohm-cm^2, and the junction leakage current should be less than 25 nA/cm^2. Analytical microscopy and surface analysis techniques were used to study the Ag-Si contact interface of different SP Ag pastes. Physical and electrical properties of SP Ag thick-film contacts were studied and correlated to understand and achieve good-quality ohmic contacts to high sheet-resistance emitters for solar cells. This information was then used to define the criteria for high-quality screen-printed contacts. The role of paste constituents and firing scheme on contact quality were investigated to tailor the high-quality screen-printed contact interface structure that results in high performance solar cells. Results indicated that small particle size, high glass transition temperature, rapid firing and less aggressive glass frit help in producing high-quality contacts. Based on these results high-quality SP contacts with high FFs0.78 on high sheet-resistance emitters were achieved for the first time using a simple single-step firing process. This technology was applied to different substrates (monocrystalline and multicrystalline) and surfaces (textured and planar). Cell efficiencies of ~16.2% on low-cost EFG ribbon substrates were achieved on high sheet-resistance emitters with SP contacts. A record high-efficiency SP solar cell of 19% with textured high sheet-resistance emitter was also fabricated and modeled.