BECN1 is a haploinsufficient tumor suppressor gene that is monoallelically deleted or epigenetically silenced in many human cancers. In breast cancer, 40% of tumors exhibit monoallelic deletion of Beclin 1. Additionally, low Beclin 1 mRNA expression is observed in aggressive breast cancer subtypes and reduced expression is an independent predictor of overall patient survival. The role of Beclin 1 in cancer has almost exclusively been attributed to its function in autophagy. However, our lab demonstrated an alternative role for Beclin 1 in the regulation of growth factor receptor signaling that could contribute to cancer. The goal of my thesis project was to investigate the molecular basis by which Beclin 1 regulates breast tumor growth and progression in vivo. Using in vivo models, I discovered that Beclin 1 promotes endosomal recruitment of hepatocyte growth factor tyrosine kinase substrate (HRS), which is necessary for sorting receptors to intraluminal vesicles for signal silencing and degradation. Beclin 1-dependent recruitment of HRS results in the autophagy-independent regulation of endocytic trafficking and degradation of the epidermal growth factor (EGFR) and transferrin (TFR1) receptors. When Beclin 1 expression is low, endosomal HRS recruitment is reduced and receptor function is sustained to drive tumor proliferation. An autophagy-independent role for Beclin 1 in regulating tumor metabolism was also observed. Collectively, my results demonstrate a novel role for Beclin 1 in impeding tumor growth by coordinating the regulation of growth promoting receptors. These data provide an explanation for how low levels of Beclin 1 facilitate tumor proliferation and contribute to poor cancer outcomes, independently of autophagy.

Asbestos é um termo geral usado comercialmente para descrever minerais fibrosos de silicato. A fibra mais utilizada até hoje é denominada crisotila, com uso considerado seguro. Embora, fragmentos menores podem permanecer por longo tempo em tecidos pulmonares. As fibras de crisotila, assim como as demais fibras de asbestos, possuem sílica na sua composição e podem ser fagocitadas com a participação de receptores scavenger. Este trabalho teve como objetivo o estudo de mecanismos de interação e de internalização das pequenas fibras de crisotila em duas linhagens celulares. Uma análise por microscopia confocal de varredura a laser e microscopia eletrônica de transmissão foi realizada e observou-se que ambas as linhagens são capazes de internalizar fibras, que apresentavam livres ou envoltas pela membrana plasmática. A presença de elementos do citoesqueleto próximos às fibras de crisotila foi verificada, assim como alterações no nível de expressão de alguns desses elementos. Dentro deste contexto, a participação de receptores no processo de internalização de fibras de crisotila também foi estudada e verificamos que esses receptores podem estar envolvidos de alguma forma com o processo de internalização de fibras de crisotila. / Asbestos is a term used commercially to describe silicate minerals. Chrysotile is the most used fiber until today and it is considered safe. However, smaller fragments can be found in lung tissues for a long period of time. Chrysotile fibers, as other asbestos fibers, are composed by silica and may be phagocyted with the participation of scavenger receptors. This studys goal was to study the interaction an internalization mechanisms of small chrysotile fibers in two cell lineages. Confocal laser scan microscopy analysis and electronic microscopy transmission analysis were conducted in both lineages, that showed capable of internalize fibers, that were involved or not by cell membrane. Cytoeskeleton elements presence near the fibers was verified and there were also changes in expression levels these elements. In this context, the participation of scavenger receptors in the internalization process of chrysotile fibers was also studied, and we verified that these receptors may be associated to the internalization process of chrysotile fibers.

Le recyclage de récepteurs et de lipides vers la membrane plasmique, est un processus finement régulé, essentiel pour l’homéostasie de la membrane plasmique et pour la migration cellulaire. Il requière l’intervention des petites GTPases de la famille Rabs et leurs effecteurs. La protéine MICAL-L1, effecteur de plusieurs Rabs, comme Rab 8, 11, 13 et 35, a été impliquée dans le recyclage vers la membrane plasmique. Dans cette étude, nous avons identifié une nouvelle interaction entre MICAL-L1 et la PACSINE3, une protéine à domaine F-BAR capable de façonner les membranes intracellulaires et qui contribue à la génération d’endosomes de recyclage tubulaires. MICAL-L1 est nécessaire pour la localisation de la PACSINE3 au niveau des membranes des endosomes. La perturbation du complexe MICAL-L1/PACSINE3 affecte le recyclage du récepteur de la transferrine (TfR) vers la membrane plasmique. Le complexe MICAL-L1/PACSINE3 est associé à des longs tubules membranaires contenant la transferrine comme cargo. La dynamique de ségrégation et de détachement des cargos Tf à partir des tubules contenant MICAL-L1 et PACSINE3, suggère que ce complexe contrôle le tri/adressage des endosomes de recyclage vers la membrane plasmique. Notre travail révèle un nouveau mécanisme de régulation de la voie de recyclage vers la surface cellulaire. / The recycling to the plasma membrane of receptors and lipids is tightly regulated and is essential for PM homeostasis, adhesion and cell migration. It requires small GTPase Rab proteins and their effectors. The MICAL-L1 protein, an effector of several Rabs including Rab 8, 11, 13 and 35, has been shown to play an important role in the recycling. Here, we report a novel interaction between MICAL-L1 and the BAR domain containing protein PACSIN3/Syndapin3 that contributes to generate tubular recycling endosomes. MICAL-L1 is required for the localization of PACSIN3 to endosomal membranes. Importantly, disruption of MICAL-L1/PACSIN3 interaction promotes the transferrin receptor (TfR) delivery back to the plasma membrane. The MICAL-L1/PACSIN3 complex accumulates in elongated tubules that contain transferrin carriers. The dynamic of transferrin positive endosomes segregation from MICAL-L1/PACSIN3 tubules suggests that MICAL-L1/PACSIN3 complex controls TfR recycling endosomes delivery to the plasma membrane. Our data provide novel mechanistic insights on the dynamical regulation of the plasma membrane recycling pathway.

L’invasion cellulaire est un phénomène clé du développement tumoral au cours duquel les cellules réalisent une transition épithélio-mésenchymateuse (TEM) caractérisée par des changements d’expression de gènes clés dans la régulation de l’adhérence et de la morphologie cellulaire. L’expression de ces gènes est sous le contrôle de voies de signalisation, qui lors du processus de tumorigenèse sont dérégulées. La dérégulation de ces voies est multifactorielle et peut-être initiée par une activation de récepteurs présents à la membrane plasmique.Dans ce contexte, nous avons mis en évidence que les flotillines sont d’importants régulateurs de l’activation de ces récepteurs et des voies de signalisation en aval qui conduisent à l’induction de la TEM. Les flotillines 1 et 2 sont des protéines ubiquitaires très conservées. Le niveau d’expression des flotillines est accru dans de nombreux cancers invasifs et ceci est un facteur de mauvais pronostic. En condition physiologique, non surexprimées, les flotillines sont majoritairement à la membrane plasmique. Surexprimées les flotillines induisent la formation d’endolysosomes ayant une faible activité de dégradation, dans lesquels elles sont retrouvées.Mes travaux montrent que l’augmentation de l’expression des flotillines dans des cellules normales mammaires est suffisante pour induire le processus de TEM, processus clé de l’invasion tumorale. De plus nous montrons que la surexpression des flotillines génère une voie de trafic vésiculaire que nous nommons UFIT (Upregulated flotillin Induced Trafficking pathway) et qui affecte le trafic de plusieurs récepteurs membranaires connus pour participer à l’activation des voies oncogéniques inductrices de la TEM. Dans le cas particulier d’un de ces récepteurs, AXL, cible thérapeutique dans les cancers du sein, nous montrons que la surexpression des flotillines régule son endocytose et l’adresse dans les endosomes de signalisation riches en flotillines tout en le protégeant de la dégradation. Ces travaux apportent donc des explications nouvelles quant au rôle des flotillines dans le processus d’invasion cellulaire conduisant à la formation des métastases. / Tumor cell invasion and consecutive metastasis formation are the main cause of death in cancer patients. One crucial process of tumor cell invasion is the epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT), a reversible process during which polarized epithelial cells convert into motile mesenchymal cells. This process is characterized by gene expression changes involved, in particular, in the perturbation of cell adhesion, polarity and cytoskeletal structures.Flotillin 1 and 2 are two ubiquitous and highly conserved membrane proteins that assemble in large oligomers, known to participate in membrane protein clustering and endocytosis. Flotillins are upregulated in many invasive cancers and are considered as markers of poor prognosis. At physiological expression level, flotillins are mainly located at the plasma membrane. The cellular distribution of upregulated flotillins is dramatically modified with a strong enrichment in vesicular compartments that we characterized as non-degradative-endolysosomes.During my PhD project, we identified that flotillins are key EMT inducer. We upregulated flotillins in normal mammary cells and demonstrated that it is sufficient to promote EMT. Using several global comparative analyses (transcriptomic, phosphokinase arrays), we showed that flotillin upregulation activates key oncogenic signaling pathways and plasma membrane receptors. We identified that flotillin overexpression induces a trafficking pathway that we named UFIT-pathway (Upregulated flotillin Induced Trafficking pathway), which promotes the endocytosis of several cargos, amongst them membrane receptors involved in the activation of oncogenic pathways.Our results suggest that the UFIT pathway generates flotillin-positive endolysosomes acting as as “signalosome compartments” involved in the activation of signaling pathways stimulating EMT and cellular invasion.

This work investigated the subcellular dynamics of the plant elicitor peptide AtPep1 and its interplay with plant defense responses. First, an introduction of the plant innate immunity system is provided with emphasis on pattern trigger immunity (PTI), which is based on the recognition of \"non-self\" and \"self\" elicitor molecules by surface-localized patternrecognition receptors (PRRs). Then, the Arabidopsis endogenous peptides that act as selfelicitor molecules are presented, with details on AtPep1 and its PEPR receptors. Plant endomembrane trafficking is described, encompassing endocytic pathways, clathrin mediated endocytosis (CME) and receptor-mediated endocytosis (RME). In the next chapter, we explored strategies for the in vivo study of the subcellular behavior of AtPep1; to this end, we fused the precursor protein of AtPep1 (PROPEP1) to GFP and assessed its localization. We found that PROPEP1 was associated with the tonoplast and accumulated in the vacuole, suggesting that this organelle could work as the station where PROPEP1 is stored and later released, only in a danger situation, hence initiating AtPep1. Moreover, we generated AtPep1 versions labeled with fluorescent dyes and demonstrated that this peptide could be fluorescently tagged without loss of its biological activity. In chapter 3, we combined classical and chemical genetics with life imaging to study the behavior of a bioactive fluorescently labeled AtPep1 in the Arabidopsis root meristem. We discovered that the labeled AtPep1 was able to bind the plasma membrane very quickly in a receptor-dependent manner. Subsequently, the PEPR-AtPep1 complex was internalized via CME and transported to the lytic vacuole, passing through early and late endosomal compartments. Impairment of CME compromised the AtPep1 responses. Our findings provide for the first time an in vivo visualization of a signaling peptide in plant cells, thus giving insights into its intracellular fate and dynamics. The role of the coregulatory receptor BRI1-associated kinase 1 (BAK1) in AtPep1-responses was also investigated (chapter 4). Our results confirmed that BAK1 interacts with PEPRs in a ligand-dependent manner and indicate that BAK1 modulates AtPep1 signaling and endocytosis, but that, when absent, it might be replaced by homologous SOMATIC EMBRYOGENESIS RECEPTOR-LIKE KINASE (SERK) proteins that could have additional functions during the AtPep1 signaling. Furthermore, phosphorylation events after the formation of PEPR-BAK1 complexes seem to dictate the molecular bases of AtPep1 internalization and signaling. Finally, we discussed our findings in a more general perspective, highlighting the important findings for the plant endomembrane trafficking field, the potential use of fluorescently labeled ligands as a tool to study ligand-receptors pairs, the availability of AtPep1-PEPRs as an excellent model to study endocytosis and its interplay with signaling, and the future challenges in the field. / Neste trabalho, foi investigada a dinâmica subcelular do peptídeo elicitor de planta AtPep1 e suas implicações nas respostas de defesa. Primeiramente, é fornecida uma introdução do sistema imune inato de plantas com ênfase na imunidade ativada por moléculas elicitoras derivadas de organismos invasores ou da mesma planta, após seu reconhecimento por receptores localizados na membrana plasmática (PTI responses). Peptídeos endógenos que têm sido reportados em Arabidopsis como ativadores de PTI são descritos, dando especial destaque para o peptídeo AtPep1 e seus receptores PEPRs. O tráfego de endomembranas em plantas é introduzido, abrangendo as vias de internalização, endocitose mediada por proteínas clathrinas (CME) e endocitose mediada por receptor (RME). No capítulo seguinte, foram avaliadas estratégias para o estudo in vivo da dinâmica subcelular do AtPep1. Para isso a proteína precursora do AtPep1 (PROPEP1) foi fusionada a GFP e sua localização visualizada, encontrando que PROPEP1 é associado com o tonoplasto e acumula dentro do vacúolo, fato que sugere uma função de armazenamento do PROPEP1 para esta organela, desde onde é liberado em caso de uma situação de perigo dando origem ao AtPep1. Adicionalmente, foram produzidas versões biologicamente ativas do AtPep1 marcado com fluróforos. No capítulo três foram combinados genética clássica e genética química com visualizações in vivo para estudar o comportamento de um AtPep1 bioativo e marcado fluorescentemente na células meristemática da ponta da raiz de Arabidopsis, sendo encontrado que AtPep1 se liga rapidamente na membrana plasmática numa forma dependente de receptor. Em seguida, o complexo AtPep1-PEPR foi internalizado via CME e transportado para o vacúolo, passando através do endossomo primário e secundário. Quando o funcionamento da CME foi comprometido, as respostas ao AtPep1 também foram afetadas. Estes resultados fornecem a primeira visualização in vivo de um peptídeo de sinalização em plantas, mostrando sua dinâmica e destino intracelular. O papel regulatório durante as respostas induzidas pelo AtPep1 do co-receptor BRI1-associated kinase 1 (BAK1) foram investigadas (Capítulo quatro). Nossos resultados confirmaram que BAK1 interage com PEPRs numa forma dependente do ligante e indicam que BAK1 modula sinalização e endocitose do AtPep1, no entanto quando ausente, BAK1 pode ser substituído por seus homólogos SOMATIC EMBRYOGENESIS RECEPTOR-LIKE KINASE os quais poderiam ter funções adicionais durante as repostas induzidas pelo AtPep1. Eventos de fosforilação após a formação do complexo PEPR-BAK1 parecem ditar as bases moleculares da internalização e sinalização do AtPep1. Finalmente, são discutidos os resultados encontrados nesta pesquisa numa perspectiva geral, destacando a relevância destas descobertas na área de pesquisa em que estão inseridos, o potencial que representa o uso de ligantes marcados fluorescentemente como ferramenta para o estudo de complexos entre ligante-receptor, a disponibilidade do sistema AtPep1-PEPRs como modelo de estudo da endocitose em plantas e sua relação com sinalização, e os futuros desafios na área.

J’ai effectué ma thèse dans le groupe du Dr. Marie-Odile Fauvarque qui met en œuvre des stratégies de génétique moléculaire sur des modèles de cellules humaines et chez la mouche drosophile pour l'étude de la fonction des protéines dans la signalisation intracellulaire. Dans ce contexte, mes travaux visaient à produire des connaissances fondamentales sur le système ubiquitine dans le contrôle du trafic endocytaire, en particulier de récepteurs membranaires impliqués dans la réponse inflammatoire (TNFR, ILR) ou la différenciation et la croissance cellulaire (EGFR). Je me suis notamment intéressée au rôle du complexe formé par l’interaction entre une protéine de la voie endocytaire, CHMP1B, et la protéase d’ubiquitine UBPY (synonyme USP8). CHMP1B est un membre de la famille ESCRT-III qui, via des processus de changements de conformation et de polymérisation à la membrane, contrôle la biogenèse des vésicules intraluménales (ILVs) au niveau des endosomes tardifs pour former les corps multivésiculaires (MVBs). Ces derniers fusionnent avec les lysosomes, assurant ainsi la protéolyse des récepteurs internalisés et l‘arrêt de la signalisation intracellulaire. Alternativement, les récepteurs peuvent être renvoyés à la membrane plasmique à partir des endosomes précoces ou tardifs via des vésicules de recyclage. Le trafic intracellulaire et le tri des récepteurs dans ces différents compartiments subcellulaires jouent un rôle majeur dans l’activation, la durée et la terminaison des signaux intracellulaires. Or, la liaison covalente d’une ou plusieurs ubiquitine (un polypeptide très conservé de 76 aminoacides) au niveau des récepteurs est un signal majeur déclenchant leur internalisation. En hydrolysant cette ubiquitine, UBPY peut stopper l’internalisation des récepteurs au niveau de la membrane plasmique, ou bien, favoriser leur entrée dans le MVB. UBPY jouerait ainsi deux rôles opposés sur la stabilité des récepteurs selon son niveau d’action dans la cellule. L’interaction entre CHMP1B et UBPY avait été décrite dans la littérature chez la levure ou par co-immunoprécipitation à partir de lysat cellulaires. Cependant, les travaux de l’équipe montraient l’absence d’interaction forte entre les domaines d’interaction de ces deux protéines in vitro et par ailleurs, la fonction de cette interaction dans le processus d’endocytose n’avait été que partiellement élucidée. J’ai confirmé l’existence du complexe CHMP1B-UBPY in cellulo qui se localise essentiellement au niveau des endosomes tardifs. J’ai déterminé la région impliquée dans cette interaction et prouvé que l’existence de ce complexe permet de stabiliser les deux protéines dans les cellules. J’ai ensuite démontré l’existence de formes ubiquitinées monomériques et dimériques de CHMP1B dans lesquelles la liaison d’une molécule d’ubiquitine sur une des deux lysines d’une boucle flexible de la protéine induit un probable changement de conformation. De plus, UBPY hydrolyse cette ubiquitine et favorise l’accumulation d’oligomères de CHMP1B qui sont dépourvues d’ubiquitine. Finalement, le traitement des cellules par l’EGF, qui se lie à l’EGFR et provoque son internalisation, induit le recrutement transitoire des dimères ubiquitinés de CHMP1B aux membranes. L’analyse du trafic intracellulaire de l’EGFR et de la morphogenèse de l’aile de drosophile dans différents contextes génétiques a également prouvé que la forme ubiquitinée de CHMP1B est essentielle à sa fonction. L’ensemble de mes travaux m’autorisent à formuler une hypothèse complètement nouvelle dans laquelle l’ubiquitination de CHMP1B induit une conformation ouverte de la protéine incapable de polymériser qui est recrutée sous forme de dimères à la membrane des endosomes où la présence d’UBPY induit la deubiquitination et la polymérisation concomitante de CHMP1B, très probablement en hétéro-complexes avec d’autres membres de la famille ESCRT-III agissant de concert pour la déformation et la scission des membranes. / I did my thesis in the group of Dr. Marie-Odile Fauvarque who implements strategies of molecular genetics on human cell culture models and in the Drosophila fly for the identification and study of the function of proteins in intracellular signaling. In this context, my work aimed to produce fundamental knowledge about the ubiquitin system in the control of the endocytic trafficking, in particular of membrane receptors involved in the inflammatory response (TNFR, ILR) or cell differentiation and growth (EGFR). I was particularly interested in the role of the complex formed by the interaction between an endocytic protein, CHMP1B, and the ubiquitin protease UBPY (synonym USP8). CHMP1B is a member of the ESCRT-III family that controls the biogenesis of intraluminal vesicles (ILVs) at the late endosomes to form multivesicular bodies (MVBs) Conformational change and polymerization at lipidic membrane processes are needed for CHMP1B function. MVBs fuse with the lysosomes, thus ensuring the proteolysis of the internalized receptors and the stoppage of the intracellular signaling. Alternatively, the receptors may be returned to the plasma membrane from early or late endosomes via recycling vesicles. Intracellular trafficking and receptor sorting in these different subcellular compartments play a major role in the activation, duration and termination of intracellular signals. The covalent bond of one or more ubiquitin (a highly conserved polypeptide of 76 amino acids) at the receptors is a major signal triggering their internalization. By hydrolyzing this ubiquitin, UBPY can stop the internalization of receptors at the plasma membrane, or promote their entry into the MVB. UBPY would thus play two opposing roles on the stability of the receptors depending on its level of action in the cell. The interaction between the two proteins CHMP1B and UBPY had been described in the literature in the two-hybrid system in yeast or by co-immunoprecipitation from cell lysates. However, the team's work showed no strong interaction between the domains of interaction of these two proteins in vitro and the function of this interaction in the endocytosis process had only been partially elucidated.During my thesis, I confirmed the existence of the CHMP1B-UBPY in cellulo complex, which is located mainly at the level of late endosomes. I determined the region involved in this interaction and proved that the existence of this complex makes possible the stabilization of both proteins into the cells. I then demonstrated the existence of monomeric and dimeric ubiquitinated forms of CHMP1B in which the binding of a molecule of ubiquitin to one of the two lysines of a flexible loop of the protein likely induces and/or stabilize a conformational conformation. In addition, UBPY hydrolyses this ubiquitin and promotes the accumulation of CHMP1B oligomers which are devoid of ubiquitin. Finally, the treatment of cells by EGF, which binds to EGFR and causes its internalization, induces transient recruitment of ubiquitinated CHMP1B dimers to the membranes. Analysis of the intracellular trafficking of EGFR and the morphogenesis of Drosophila wing in different genetic contexts has also shown that the ubiquitination of CHMP1B is essential to its function. My work has allowed me to formulate a completely new hypothesis in which the ubiquitination of CHMP1B induces an open conformation of the protein incapable of polymerizing in this state which is recruited in the form of dimers to the membrane of the endosomes and there the presence of UBPY induces the deubiquitination and the concomitant polymerization of CHMP1B, most probably in hetero-complexes with other members of the ESCRT-III family acting in concert for deformation and scission of the membranes.

<p>Protein ubiquitination is an evolutionary conserved mechanism that controls a wide variety of cellular functions. Polyubiquitinated proteins are generally degraded in the proteasome, whereas monoubiquitination controls various other cellular processes, including endocytosis and endosomal sorting.</p><p>Termination of signaling by activated receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) largely occurs via their endocytosis and subsequent lysosomal degradation, processes accompanied by receptor ubiquitination. Cbl family proteins are major ubiquitin ligases that promote RTK ubiquitination and downregulation. We showed that epidermal growth factor (EGF) and platelet derived growth factor (PDGF) receptors are monoubiquitinated at multiple sites following their ligand-induced activation and that a single ubiquitin is sufficient for both receptor internalization and degradation. Cbl also controls EGF receptor (EGFR) downregulation by binding to CIN85, which recruits endophilins to EGFR/Cbl complexes. In the complex with activated EGFRs, Cbl directs monoubiquitination of CIN85, and the entire complex is targeted for degradation in the lysosome. We propose that multiple monoubiquitination of activated receptors and associated protein complexes ensures proper receptor sorting towards the lysosome. Importantly, the functions of Cbl are also negatively controlled in order to maintain cellular homestasis. Sprouty2 blocks EGFR downregulation by sequestering Cbl from activated EGFRs. We showed that Sprouty2 also associates with CIN85 and that this binding is required for efficient inhibition of EGFR ubiquitination and endocytosis. </p><p>Cbl is also implicated in other aspects of RTK signaling, including organization of the actin cytoskeleton. We found that growth factor receptor signals promote lamellipodia formation in neuronal cells via a complex containing Cbl, the adaptor protein ArgBP2 and Pyk2. The lamellipodia formation required intact lipid rafts and the recruitment of Crk and PI(3)K to tyrosine phosphorylated Cbl.</p><p>In conclusion, our findings contribute to a better understanding of monoubiquitin signals in downregulation of RTKs and point at a role of Cbl in the regulation of cytoskeleton dynamics.</p>

Protein ubiquitination is an evolutionary conserved mechanism that controls a wide variety of cellular functions. Polyubiquitinated proteins are generally degraded in the proteasome, whereas monoubiquitination controls various other cellular processes, including endocytosis and endosomal sorting. Termination of signaling by activated receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) largely occurs via their endocytosis and subsequent lysosomal degradation, processes accompanied by receptor ubiquitination. Cbl family proteins are major ubiquitin ligases that promote RTK ubiquitination and downregulation. We showed that epidermal growth factor (EGF) and platelet derived growth factor (PDGF) receptors are monoubiquitinated at multiple sites following their ligand-induced activation and that a single ubiquitin is sufficient for both receptor internalization and degradation. Cbl also controls EGF receptor (EGFR) downregulation by binding to CIN85, which recruits endophilins to EGFR/Cbl complexes. In the complex with activated EGFRs, Cbl directs monoubiquitination of CIN85, and the entire complex is targeted for degradation in the lysosome. We propose that multiple monoubiquitination of activated receptors and associated protein complexes ensures proper receptor sorting towards the lysosome. Importantly, the functions of Cbl are also negatively controlled in order to maintain cellular homestasis. Sprouty2 blocks EGFR downregulation by sequestering Cbl from activated EGFRs. We showed that Sprouty2 also associates with CIN85 and that this binding is required for efficient inhibition of EGFR ubiquitination and endocytosis. Cbl is also implicated in other aspects of RTK signaling, including organization of the actin cytoskeleton. We found that growth factor receptor signals promote lamellipodia formation in neuronal cells via a complex containing Cbl, the adaptor protein ArgBP2 and Pyk2. The lamellipodia formation required intact lipid rafts and the recruitment of Crk and PI(3)K to tyrosine phosphorylated Cbl. In conclusion, our findings contribute to a better understanding of monoubiquitin signals in downregulation of RTKs and point at a role of Cbl in the regulation of cytoskeleton dynamics.

Clathrin-mediated endocytosis is a process by which cells can internalise diverse molecules such as nutrients, antigens and signalling-surface receptors. The creation of clathrin-coated vesicles demands interplay between the plasma membrane lipids, cargo molecules and the proteins that build up the coat. This thesis deals with the identification and characterisation of sorting nexin 9 (SNX9) as a novel component of the endocytic machinery. SNX9 belongs to a large family of proteins based on the presence of a PX domain. In addition, SNX9 harbours an SH3 domain followed by a region with predicted low-complexity and a C-terminal BAR homology domain. Binding studies demonstrated that SNX9 interacted with the endocytic core components clathrin and AP-2 and dynamin-2, a GTPase known to be crucial for vesicle scission. The C-terminal region bound to phosphatidylinositols and targeted SNX9 to artificial liposomes and cellular membranes. Consistent with a role in endocytosis, a large portion of SNX9 co-localised with AP-2 and dynamin-2 but not with markers for early endosomes, Golgi. Over-expression of truncated variants of SNX9 in K562 and HeLa cells interfered with the uptake of transferrin. SNX9 recycles between a membrane-bound and a cytosolic pool. In cytosol, SNX9 formed a resting complex together with dynamin-2 and the metabolic enzyme aldolase. Activation for membrane binding involved ATP hydrolysis and correlated with phosphorylation of SNX9 and the release of aldolase. Aldolase bound to a tryptophan-containing acidic region near the clathrin and AP-2 motifs and blocked lipid binding of purified SNX9 derivatives. SNX9 was required for membrane targeting of dynamin2 in vitro and knockdown of SNX9 in HeLa cells by RNAi resulted in impaired membrane localisation. Together these results argue strongly for a role of SNX9 in recruiting and linking of dynamin-2 to sites of vesicle creation.

<p>Extracellular GRP94 can elicit both innate and adaptive immune responses by interacting with endocytic and signaling receptors on professional antigen presenting cells (pAPCs). CD91 was the first receptor proposed to facilitate GRP94-mediated immune responses. Using a GRP94 affinity matrix, a CD91 fragment was isolated from the detergent-solubilized membranes of a pAPC cell line. It was then demonstrated that CD91 ligands could inhibit GRP94-mediated peptide cross-presentation, suggesting that CD91 played a critical role in this process. While these studies implied that CD91 could function as a GRP94 endocytic receptor, later works suggested that CD91 may not recognize GRP94 at the cell surface. These opposing observations have lead to a significant controversy surrounding the identity of CD91 as an endocytic receptor for GRP94. Because the ability of CD91 to directly mediate GRP94 surface binding and uptake has not been established, the studies included in this dissertation have focused on evaluating the ability of CD91 to facilitate three processes that are necessary for GRP94-mediated peptide cross-presentation: surface binding, internalization, and processing.</p><p>These studies utilized a recombinantly-expressed N-terminal domain of GRP94 (GRP94.NTD), which was previously shown to have nearly identical biological activity to full length GRP94. The ability of CD91 to directly bind and internalize GRP94.NTD was examined using murine embryonic fibroblast (MEF) cell lines whose expression of CD91 was either reduced via siRNA, or eliminated by genetic disruption of the CD91 locus. Binding competition experiments were also conducted. Together, these studies reveal that CD91 does not directly interact with GRP94 at the cell surface. The ability of CD91 to directly facilitate GRP94 internalization was examined using various internalization and internalization competition assays. These studies demonstrated that GRP94.NTD and the CD91 ligand RAP were internalized through spatially and kinetically distinct pathways, that CD91 was not necessary for GRP94.NTD internalization, and that RAP did not inhibit GRP94 endocytosis. Together, these studies strongly suggest that CD91 does not directly facilitate GRP94 internalization. When these studies were extended to DC2.4 mouse dendritic cells, the CD91 ligand RAP reduced GRP94.NTD internalization/process by ~15%. This suggests that CD91 may indirectly facilitate GRP94 internalization in pAPC cell lines. Lastly, cross-presentation studies were utilized to examine the ability of various CD91 ligands to influence GRP94.NTD-mediated peptide cross-presentation through a post-uptake mechanism using the DC2.4/OT-1 system. Although it was discovered that DC2.4 cells can internalize and process GRP94.NTD/peptide complexes through fluid-phase endocytosis, CD91 ligands did not significantly inhibit GRP94-mediated peptide cross-presentation by DC2.4 cells. These studies demonstrate that CD91 does not play a primary role in GRP94-mediated peptide cross-presentation.</p><p>In the course of these studies, cell surface heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) were identified as novel cell surface binding sites for GRP94.NTD on MEF cells. This conclusion was established using three distinct experimental approaches. GRP94.NTD surface binding was significantly decreased following heparin pre-treatment, following incubation with the sulfation inhibitor sodium chlorate, and following digestion with extracellular heparinase II. Conversely, these treatments did not significantly influence GRP94.NTD binding to RAW264.7 mouse macrophage-like cells. This suggested that GRP94.NTD-HSPG cell surface interactions may require the expression of a specific type of cell surface HSPG that is not expressed by RAW264.7 cells. However, additional studies strongly suggested that GRP94.NTD-HSPG cell surface interactions were mediated by the heparan sulfate-containing side chains rather than the presence of a specific cell surface HSPG core protein.</p><p>This dissertation focuses on the critical re-examination of CD91 functions in GRP94 surface binding, uptake, and cross-presentation. Together, these results clarify conflicting data on CD91 function in GRP94 surface binding and endocytosis. This dissertation also describes the identification of cell surface HSPGs as GRP94 binding sites on MEF cells. These studies extend the diversity of surface receptors that recognize of GRP94, and suggest that cell surface HSPG-dependent interactions may contribute to the biology of GRP94-elicited immune responses.</p> / Dissertation