This master thesis examines if a PV system in “norra Djurgårdsstaden” (Stockholm) can be optimized by the addition of a battery storage system. Both in terms of increasing the usage of the produced PV energy and also (partly as a consequence) becoming more efficient and environment friendly. Simulations were run in both MATLAB and PVsyst. The simulations were based on measured data - PV production and consumption - and different scenarios were examined. Though the central aspect was to maximize the amount of PV energy used, simulations for peak shaving and a combination of the two were also examined.  The major differences between simulation in MATLAB and PVsyst were firstly, the fact that the input for consumption was monthly in PVsyst and hourly measurement (given by Incoord) was used in MATLAB and secondly, that different types of battery types had to be used. The battery type used in the MATLAB simulation was a NiMH battery from a company called Nilar. This battery type has the ability to be rejuvenated and thereby extend its lifetime. This type of battery did not exist as an option in PVsyst. Due to this the result of the simulation was not exactly the same. They were however similar enough to be useful; they showed similar patterns even at points of divergence.  Although the real estate was planned and built to be very energy efficient and environmentally friendly, the integration of a battery storage system was definitely able to optimize the PV system. Of the different integration options examined the most optimal was determined to be when the battery system was fed by the surplus energy from the existing PV system; after it has met momentary consumption needs. At the largest, battery storage system (10 batteries) the primary energy number (EPpet) decreased with almost 8 kWh/m2 - i.e. from 48,2 to just above40 kWh/m2. Self - consumption and self - sufficient was also positively affected by the battery storage with the former going from 59 to 77 % and the latter from 31 to 41 %. Furthermore with around 4 batteries in the battery storage system the EPpet decreased such as the real estate entered a higher order of environmental classification.  The battery system will always be an expense, however this expense is lessened by utilizing as much as possible of the PV energy, i.e. when the momentary consumption is met by the PV system before the surplus PV energy is directed to the storage in order to maximize self - consumption.

This report aims to examen the self-utilization of produced power, both with and without an energy storage, in a solar cell plant in Falkenberg city. Falkenberg energi AB predicts that the amount of locally produced solarpower will increase in the near future. Instead of spending a large amount of money reinforcing the local power grid, other alternatives like energy storage are examined. Through literature studies, economic calculations and computer simulations the reports questions are answered.  Three different types of energy storage are being evaluated, nickel metal hydride, hydrogen fuel cell and lithium ion- batteries. After evaluation it was confirmed thar the lithium ion is best suited when it comes down to performance. The advantages given by installing an energy storage combined with solarpower are the increase in self-utilization and self-sufficiency.  The project is based on the results from the solar power plant in combination with the facilities without an energy storage. Self-utilization and self-sufficiency are then compared between different storage sizes.  This study examens how the self-utilization changes depending on different sizes of energy storage when solarpower production of 518 kilowatt (peak) is installed.  When different sizes of energy storages were compared the conclusion is that the larger the battery size the higher the self-utilization. The increase happened to be nonlinear. The higher the storage size, the smaller the increase in self-utilization is. Economic calculations have been done depending on different variable changes. The LCOE- method (Levelized cost of electricity) and the present value-method are the economic methods used to determine the profitability of the investment.  Results after calculations showed that an investment of any of the different storage sizes is not economical profitable. An investment without an energy storage turned out to be profitable. / Denna rapport syftar till att beräkna hur egenanvändningsgraden blir i en solcellsanläggning både utan och med olika storlekar på batterilager i ett område i Falkenberg. Falkenberg energi AB förutspår att andelen solceller kommer att öka i det lokala nätet. I stället för att genomföra kostsamma nätförstärkningar undersöks ett alternativ i form av energilagring. Frågeställningarna besvaras genom simuleringar i beräkningsverktyget Polysun, litteraturstudier av ersättningsmodeller samt ekonomiska beräkningar. Tre typer av energilager undersöks, Nickel-Metallhybridbatterier, Litiumbatterier, samt bränslecell baserad på vätgas. Efter undersökning fastställdes att Lit-jon-batteri var mest lämplig sett till prestanda. Fördelen med att installera ett energilager är att självförsörjningsgraden och egenanvändningen ökar.  Projektet har grundat sig på data som tagits fram på anläggningen utan något energilager. Egenanvändning och självförsörjningsgrad har sedan jämförts med fall med olika lagringsstorlekar. I studien undersöks hur egenanvändningen vid installation av solceller med 518 kW maxeffekt påverkas av olika storlekar på tillhörande batterilager. Olika ekonomiska beräkningar har gjorts utifrån olika parametrar. Parametrar som ändras är kalkylräntan, skattereduktion samt med och utan investeringsstöd. Levelized cost of electricity (LCOE-metoden) och nuvärdesmetoden har använts för att undersöka investeringens lönsamhet. Efter undersökning av olika storlekar av batterilager kunde konstateras att egenanvändningen ökar med större batterilager. Noterbart var att egenanvändningens ökning inte är linjär utan avtar i olinjärt i takt med ökad installerad batterikapacitet. Resultat efter lönsamhetsberäkningar visade att en investering i något av de energilagringsstorlekar som undersöks inte är ekonomiskt lönsam. Resultat av beräkningar utan tillhörande energilager visade sig vara lönsam.

This thesis will investigate possible energy storages in Luleå Energi’s power grid within a five-year period. The transition to a more sustainable and efficient energy system, in response to climate change, creates new challenges for the power grid. Energy storage has, according to many sources, the potential to contribute to meet the challenges that arise from a larger share of intermittent renewables, a growing number of electrical vehicles and increased demands for reliability and stability. Several reports conclude that currently energy storages are most profitable in customer applications, especially in combination with micro-production, e.g. solar cells. Therefore, this report will investigate if battery storages could be installed in three multi-residential properties with solar cells, with the purpose to increase self-use of electricity generated from the solar cells and peak-shaving. Batteries have been chosen as storage technology, since they currently seem to be the technology with the most potential. Possible savings for the customer as well as potential benefits for the grid will be considered. Based on data for the properties’ consumption and solar power production, an analysis has been made to see how much excess electricity the solar cells generate and to identify peak demands. Regarding the solar cells, data has only been available for a few months. For other days, the production has been estimated base on measurements of global radiation over Luleå municipality. A simulation in MATLAB has then been carried out to dimension the battery. When customers connect micro-production to the grid, the voltage may rise above permissible limits, especially in weaker rural grids. As a result, reinforcements of the grid may be necessary, which means expenses for the grid owner. Installation of a battery, that can store energy and keep the voltage within permissible limits, could be an alternative. The report considers such a case and makes a comparison between reinforcements of the grid and installation of a battery.   The results of the report show that energy storages have several potential benefits, both for customers, grid owners and system operators. Forecasts point to a strong growth, as well as lowered battery prices, which could lead to investments that are more profitable. The study of installing a battery in properties with solar cells shows that an increased self-use and peak shaving is possible. However, the economic results show negative net values. This means that currently the investment is not profitable. Approximately, battery prices must be cut in half to reach profitability. The calculation concludes that power tariffs enables most savings for the customers and gives them incentives for peak-shaving. The report also shows that the amount of micro-production in a rural grid can be limited by the strength of the grid. If five customers in the investigated part of the grid each would install 8.6 kW solar power, the voltage rise at the point of common coupling would go above permissible values, and the grid would have to be reinforced. The economical comparison between investing in new cables and installing a battery storage shows that currently, a battery storage is more expensive than a new cable. The overall conclusion from the report is that energy storage has the potential to contribute to the transition of the energy system. However, regulations and battery prices currently limit the possibilities for profitable investments. It is recommended to do an oversight of regulations and new business models to enable more investments in energy storage. Studying alternative tariffs is also important, to create incentives for a more efficient use of the power grid.

Det svenska elnätet har en mycket hög leveranssäkerhet på den el som skickas till kunderna och på många ställen kan elen levereras från flera håll till samma punkt. I utkanterna av elnätet som exempelvis öar, har inte elnätet samma säkerhet längre och om ett avbrott uppstår kan det vara vid dåligt väder. Framkomligheten blir svår och det kan ta tid att få dit en reparatör som kan laga felet. Syftet med det här arbetet var att undersöka om Umeå Energi Elnät (UEEN) skulle kunna använda sig av lokala energisystem för att motverka svåravhjälpta avbrott på öar och områden som är utsatta för den typen av avbrott, samt undersöka vilka komponenter som skulle krävas i en sådan lösning. Målet var att skapa ett lösningspaket som kan skalas om till olika antal abonnenter. Lösningen togs fram genom att först undersöka vilka komponenter som vanligtvis används i lokala energisystem. Därefter undersöktes och jämfördes komponenternas styrkor och svagheter med hjälp av fakta och resultat från vetenskapliga artiklar. De komponenter som inte var lämpade för den här typen av applikation eller som inte var tillräckligt bra, valdes successivt bort tills den bäst lämpade lösningen kvarstod. Den bästa lösningen blev ett litiumjonbatteri som laddas direkt av elnätet då den kräver lite underhåll, kan leverera höga effekter utan att ta skada och har en låg kapacitetsförlust. Anledningen till varför ingen lokal elproduktionsanläggning var med i lösningen beror på att ingen lösning är tillräckligt pålitlig för att kunna användas vid uppladdning av batterilagret och blir för stora om de ska användas till att göra ön självförsörjande. Detta beror på att de lösningar som är bäst lämpade som lokala elproduktionsanläggningar är för väderberoende och de lösningar som inte beror av vädret blir för stora och dyra för att vara rimliga alternativ. Storleksdimensioneringen av batterilagret skedde utifrån avbrottsstatistik för Umeås landsbygdsnät. Genom att göra en täthetsfördelning över landsbygdsnätets avbrottsstatistik kunde sedan den bästa fördelningsfunktionen passas in till det datat. Den fördelning som passade bäst till datat var en weibullfördelning som visade i sin kumulativa täthetsfunktion att drygt 80 % av alla avbrott som sker i ett område, pågår i tre timmar eller mindre. Genom att anta att avbrotten på öar också följer den här funktionen sånär som på att deras avbrott blir längre, kunde en dimensioneringsmetod tas fram. Metoden gick ut på att energilagret dimensioneras efter de tre på varandra följande timmar med högst energiförbrukning i ett givet område under ett år, vilket garanterar att strömförsörjningen kan täckas i tre timmar. Med tanke på att energiförbrukningen varierar mycket beroende på årstid och tid på dygnet kan batterilagret därför också klara mycket längre avbrott än tre timmar. Anledningen till varför just tre timmar valdes beror på att ett större energilager inte täcker upp så många procent fler avbrott än ett energilager på tre timmar och ett mindre energilager skulle inte klara tillräckligt långa avbrott. Det finns teknologier som inom några år kan ha mognat tillräckligt för att vara en bättre lösning än den som presenteras i den här rapporten, men den här lösningen är fortfarande tillräckligt bra för att kunna användas till att motverka långa avbrott och är en lösning som troligen skulle fungera länge efter att den installerats.

Uppsala’s population and infrastructure is expanding at a fast rate. This results in problems with supplying sufficient electrical power during peak hours such as early mornings and late evenings. One of the many ways to solve this issue is through peak shaving by using parked electrical vehicles as batteries to discharge into the power grid (vehicle-to-grid). In this report, the possibilies for peak shaving during peak hours in a mobility house called Dansmästaren are presented, as well as the possibilities for the vehicle-to-grid technology in the future. Dansmästaren has 60 available parking slots for electric vehicles, and a large central battery available.Through simulations using MATLAB, the results show that it’s possible to achieve a considarable degree of peak shaving, while battery degradation is kept reasonably low. Conclusions regarding vehicle-to-grid in the future are that there is a large potential for Vehicle-to-grid to become an important part of tomorrow’s energy system. However, continued research and development is necessary, as well as bigger focus on the social and economic aspects of this technology. A succesful implementation will require cooperation between the grid owners, the industry and the customers.

The shift towards renewable energy sources for electric production implies the need for more demand side flexibility in the use of electricity. In recent years, the spot price of electricity on the NordPool market has started to fluctuate more rapidly and with a greater magnitude than ever seen before. A key factor to this is the changes in production capabilities of cheap renewable energy due to weather changes. A second factor is that the Nordic transmission system is facing challenges in transmitting enough energy from areas with excess electricity production to areas with a shortage on electric energy. Thirdly, Russia launched an illegal invasion on the sovereign state of Ukraine in the early spring of 2022 leading to shortages on fossil fuels which are crucial for electricity production all around Europe. The new market conditions increase the economic incentives to utilize demand side flexibility as a method to decrease the operational energy costs for both small- and large-scale consumers. In this study, the opportunities of utilizing a battery storage system to minimize the cost of electricity by the implementation of Model Predictive Control (MPC) are investigated. The study consists of a case study that simulates how the power flow between the grid, a battery and a building can be optimized by MPC, as well as time scheduled operation. Different control strategies were implemented to include the different market structures that affect the limitations of the system. The simulation model for the system was constructed in MATLAB and utilized its system identification toolbox as well as its mixed integer linear programing capabilities. The results showed that by shifting the power demand by less than 9%, a 13% reduction of the cost for bought electricity can be obtained compared to the same system without an energy storage system. It was also shown that the MPC was able achieve over 40% higher economic savings compared to the time scheduled control structure. The study also propose that similar control strategies can be utilized for different energy storage systems.

I takt med en ökande befolkning ökar användningen av energi. Samtidigt som energianvändandet ökar, avvecklas kärnkraftverken och därmed ökar kolkraftverkens användning vilket leder till utsläpp av främst koldioxid. Många industrier släpper ut mängder av överskottsvärme i naturen utan att den återanvänds. Ett sätt att ta tillvara på överskottsvärme, som annars går till spillo, är att lagra den. Om värme kan lagras och användas vid en annan tidpunkt kan den ersätta andra energikällor och onödiga utsläpp kan förhindras. Det finns idag tre olika metoder att lagra värmeenergi. Dessa är sensibelt värme, latent värme och kemisk värme. Inom varje metod finns olika system som beskrivs vidare i denna rapport. Bharat Forge Kilsta Kilsta är ett smidesföretag i Karlskoga. Deras smidesugn avger stora mängder värme som dels går till lokaluppvärmning men en del av värmen går till spillo. Skulle överskottsvärmen, som nu går till spillo, kunna lagras på ett effektivt sätt skulle både miljömässiga och kostnadsmässiga besparingar kunna göras. Syftet med rapporten är att redogöra och jämföra olika värmelagringsmetoder i en litteraturstudie för att se vilken typ som passar för industriell överskottsvärme i fallet med Bharat Forge Kilsta. Målet är att översiktligt redovisa olika lagringsmetoder samt olika system inom dessa med avseende på lagringskapacitet och kostnad. Utifrån simulering och reglering av bergrumslager och ackumulatortankar kan en passande metod, med avseende på energidistribution och energieffektivitet samt kostnad, för det specifika fallet väljas. Den mest utvecklade och kommersiellt använda metoden är sensibelt värme, den latenta och kemiska värmelagringen är fortfarande i forskning- och utvecklingsstadiet då de är mer kostsamma. Val av lagringsmetod avgörs utifrån lagringskapacitet, lagringstemperatur, kostnad, geografisk placering samt lagringslängd. Sensibelt värme passar bäst till långtidslagring, vid lägre temperaturer och där lagringskapaciteten måste vara stor till ett lågt pris. Latent och kemisk värme passar bäst för högre temperaturer då värmeförlusterna är små och energidensiteten är hög, kostnaden för dessa är dock hög och de tillämpas enbart i liten skala än så länge. Ur litteraturstudien kunde vissa system uteslutas, de system som skulle passa en industri som Bharat Forge Kilsta var bergrum och ackumulatortank. Resultatet visade att bergrummen har störst värmeförluster jämfört med den totala energin, däremot är lagringskapaciteten större. För att garanterat tillgodose värmebehovet vid extremdagar är det mest lämpligt att använda bergrummen. Kostnadsmässigt är de befintliga tankarna bäst lämpade, däremot klarar de enbart tillgodose värmebehovet i sex timmar vid extrembelastning. Om de befintliga tankarna används som system och 200 m3 tanken tilläggsisoleras kan omkring 100 000 kr per år sparas, räknat med att förlusterna skulle ersätta inköpt fjärrvärme och att skillnaden i värmeförluster enbart sker vinterhalvåret. Återbetalningstiden var kortast för de befintliga takarna, 1,4 år medan en ny ackumulatortank hade längst återbetalningstid, 3,2 år. / When the population increases also the energy use will rise. At the same time the nuclear power plants is decommissioned and the use of coal-fired power plants increases, which leads to large amount of mainly carbon dioxide emissions. Many industries get a lot of excess heat that is released in the nature instead of being reused. One way to reuse excess heat could be to store the heat in a suitable storage for later use. If the excess heat can be stored and be used at a different time it can replace other energy sources and decrease the emissions. Today there is three ways to storage heat, they are sensible heat, latent heat, and chemical heat. In each method there are different systems, these will be described further in this report. Bharat Fore is a large forging company in Karlskoga, Sweden. From their furnace a lot of heat is emitted, some of the heat is used to heat the buildings, but still a lot of excess heat goes to waste.  The aim of this report is to compare different heat storage systems and see which one is best suited to industrial excess heat. The goal is to investigate if there is any heat storage method that is effective and cost-saving that fits a larger industry. The purpose of this work is to do a literature study to account and compare different heat storage methods to find the best suitable system for the case with Bharat Forge Kilsta. The goal is to present different storage methods and the different system for each method with respect of cost and storage capacity. From simulation and regulation find the best fitting method for the real case with respect of cost, efficient and storage capacity. The most developed and commercially used method is the sensible heat. Latent heat and chemicals are very costly and still in the research and development stage. Geographic location, using area and operating temperature is parameters that need to be considered when choosing heat storage system. Sensible heat is best suited for long-term storage, at lower temperatures and when the storage capacity needs to be large to a small cost. Latent and chemical heat is best suited for higher temperatures because the heat losses are small and the energy density is high and they are only applied in small scale for now. The result of the literature study showed that storage tanks and cavern storage is most fitting for the case with Bharat Forge Kilsta. The cavern has much larger heat loss compared to the total energy, however the storage capacity is much larger. To guarantee that the heat requirements when there are extreme days it is most appropriate to use the cavern as heat storage. From a coast view it is most fitting to use the already existing tanks, however they could only cater the heat requirement for six hours of heat peak when the production is not running. If the existing tanks is used as heat storage, and the 200 m3 tank will be additional insulated, if the heat loss, in the winter, is replaced with purchased district heating as much as 100 000 SEK per year could be spared. The payback time is shortest for the existing tanks, 1.4 years and almost 3.2 years for the new storage tank.

The increasing amount of renewable energy in the power system have led to new challenges to balance supply and demand in the electric grid. To maintain the balance in the power system the system operator can activate power reserves to restore the balance at a frequency deviation. Today these reserves consist exclusively of hydropower in Sweden. With more volatile power generation new types of technologies to provide these reserves are desirable. The aim of this master thesis is to investigate the technical potential for using wind power, demand response and energy storage for automatic frequency control in the Swedish power system. The thesis examines the performance of the different technologies to see if they meet the technical requirements for delivering reserves set by the TSO. Moreover, the available capacity from the technologies throughout the year are estimated. The results show that all three technologies potentially could be used for frequency control. However, the technical requirements are not always fulfilled. In order to enable new technologies to provide power reserves some of the requirements needs to be modernized. Generally, demand response proved to have the largest available capacity for frequency control today. The study shows that demand response from industries and electric heated households could potentially provide all automatic frequency control. Modern wind turbines can be used for frequency control and for down regulation of the frequency the potential is considerable. Energy storages are not yet widely used in Sweden but with reduced costs they can play an important role in regulating the frequency in the future.

A four quadrant general single-phase bi-directional DC/DC converter was designed and constructed for high effect systems. The target application for the DC/DC converter was to be used to transfer energy between different energy storages, a miniature DC power grid and the high voltage AC power city grid. The converter is capable of step-up and step-down operations in both directions i.e. it is bi-directional at varying voltage levels. Different DC/DC topologies were investigated, and thereafter simulations were performed in LTspice and Simulink to ensure its capabilities and functionalities. The result of the simulations was a two layered PI-regulator, controlling both the external DC-grid voltage and inductor current through the converter. Once a suitable topology and control strategy was found, a suitable power transistor investigated and a PCB driver card were developed with KiCad. The final converter is capable to seamlessly change between its four modes and controlling voltages up to 1200 V and currents up to 200 A.

Under 2011 började MacBat AB ta fram ett elenergilager kallat Macbat Energy Storage System (MESS), vilket är uppbyggt av 360 stycken tvåvolts bly-syrabatterier inhysta i ett 20 fots container. Då bly-syrabatterier är känsliga för värme är den här studien inriktad på att utreda hur stort kylbehovet blir under olika förutsättningar där kyldistribution, drifttemperatur på batterierna, klimat, isolering och termiska tröghet är varierande parameterar. Det ska även avgöras vilken konfiguration av kyldistribution och isolering som ger lägst kylbehov för de studerade klimaten, vilka är av varmtempererad, arid och tropisk karaktär. För att besvara studiens två mål togs fyra matematiska modeller fram i SIMULINK. Två luftkylda och två vattenkylda där en av varje var isolerad med 100 mm mineralull medan den andra var oisolerad. För samtliga modeller varierades drifttemperaturen mellan 25 – 35 °C och de studerade klimaten utgjordes av Phnom Phen, Kambodja, Djibouti, Djibouti, Bagdad, Irak samt London, England. För de vattenkylda modellerna varierades även MESS termiska tröghet i spannet 1,8058 – 9,0288 MJ/K genom att öka mängden kylvatten i systemet som användes för att kyla batterierna. Batteriernas drifttemperatur visade sig vara den parameter som i högst grad avgör kylbehovets storlek. Isoleringen gav en reducerande effekt på kylbehovet i de fall då omgivningstemperaturen under längre perioder överstiger batteriernas drifttemperatur. Varierande termisk tröghet, i de vattenkylda modellerna, hade liten eller ingen inverkan på kylbehovet. Det beror förmodligen på att den termiska massa som konstant finns i batterierna i form av elektrolyt var betydligt större. I fråga om vilken konfiguration av distributionssystem och isolering som ska användas för att erhålla ett lågt kylbehov visade sig detta bero på klimatet och drifttemperaturen på batterierna. Varmtemperade klimat som London behöver dock inget kylsystem överhuvudtaget. / In 2011 MacBat AB began to develop a electrical energy storage system called Macbat Energy Storage System (MESS), which is made up of 360 two volt lead acid batteries housed in a 20 foot container. However, while lead acid batteries are sensitive to heat this study is focused on investigating how great a cooling demand will be required under different conditions in which chilled distribution, operating temperature of the batteries, climate, insulation and thermal inertia are varied parameters. The study will also determine the configuration of chilled distribution and isolation that gives minimum cooling requirements for the studied climates, which is warm temperate, arid and tropical nature To answer the study's two goals four mathematical models were developed in SIMULINK. Two air-cooled and two water-cooled where one of each was insulated with 100 mm mineral wool while the other was bare. For all models the operating temperature varied between 25 - 35 ° C and the studied climates consisted of Phnom Penh, Cambodia, Djibouti, Djibouti, Baghdad, Iraq, and London, England. For the water cooled models thermal inertia was also varied in the range of 1.8058 to 9.0288 MJ/ K by increasing the amount of cooling water in the system used to cool the batteries. The battery operating temperature was proven to have the most significant impact on the cooling load. The isolation yielded a reducing effect on the cooling load in the case where the ambient temperature surpassed the battery operating temperature during longer periods. Varying thermal inertia of the water cooled models had little or no impact on the cooling load. It is probably due to the electrolyte in the batteries. It is a considerably larger source of thermal mass and is constant in all the models. Which configuration, regarding the distribution system and insulation, that obtains a low cooling requirement was found to depend on the ambient climate and the battery operating temperature. However, warm temperate climates such as London requires no cooling system at all.