The purpose of this study was to examine the role that the use of subtitling can play as an aid in academic literacy (AL) programmes, particularly against the background of insufficient AL levels at the University of Buea (UB) and elsewhere. Essentially, the study wanted to investigate whether the AL levels of freshmen at UB would improve significantly if they were to be exposed to subtitled popular television programmes (dramas and documentaries) over a period of one academic semester, compared to the AL levels of students who were not exposed to these programmes. The literature survey provided an overview of the field of AL at tertiary level as well as of the use of subtitling in an educational context, clarifying the relevant terminology related to AL, and also investigating other studies that have been done on the benefits of the mode. The survey also investigated the language policy in Cameroon and specifically at UB. Apart from determining whether exposure to subtitled programmes has a positive effect on AL levels, the study also sought to establish which specific areas of AL are improved by exposure to subtitling (if any), and whether the choice of genre (drama or documentary) or the medium of prior learning of participants (English or French) has an impact on AL levels in English. In order to determine the above, the study exposed four test groups enrolled for the UB AL course to popular television programmes over a period of 12 weeks or one academic semester. Two of these groups saw dramas (one with subtitles and the other without) and two saw documentaries (one with subtitles and the other without). A fifth group was used as control group and did not watch any film. The data used was collected from the Test of Academic Literacy Levels (TALL) used as pre-test and post-test, questionnaires, interviews and observations. The study concluded that: 1. In terms of overall improvement, even though there was statistically significant improvement in all test groups (in the case of the weighted data), the improvement of the groups that saw subtitled films was statistically highly significant and had large practical significance. This indicates that the AL levels of the two groups that saw subtitled film improved more than those of the two other groups when compared to the control group. 2. Specific areas of statistically significant AL improvement revealed by the experiment were academic vocabulary, text comprehension and text editing abilities, as a result of exposure to subtitled film (and in certain cases exposure to film without subtitles). 3. The study found no statistically significant difference between the improvement of the two groups that saw subtitled film, indicating that either genre could be used for this purpose. 4. It would also seem that Anglophone and Francophone students benefited equally from exposure to subtitled film. On the basis of these findings, a model was designed for the implementation of subtitling as an integrated aid in AL programmes at tertiary institutions. This model provides for a general and specific integration of subtitled audiovisual material. The former has been used successfully in this study at UB, and it should be possible to make use of the general application of this model with similar levels of success at other tertiary institutions. The use of the latter (applying the model for specific integration) focuses on institutions with discipline-based AL interventions or specific AL purposes. It is important, however, that the model proposed in this study is further refined by ongoing research on its implementation. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Lanuage Practice))--North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, 2010.

This study investigated relationships between individual learner differences and the learning of two English structures that differed in their grammatical difficulty. Using a quasi-experimental design, 66 secondary-level learners of English as a foreign language from three intact classes were provided with four hours of instruction on two L2 structures –one considered relatively easy to learn (i.e., past progressive) and the other relatively difficult to learn (i.e. passive construction). The participants were pretested on their knowledge of both structures and posttested immediately after the instruction. Learners’ progress was measured via written grammaticality judgment tests (GJT) and oral production tasks (OPT). The instruments to measure individual learner differences included a computerized language aptitude test, an L1 metalinguistic awareness test, a motivation questionnaire, a backward digit span test, and a learner retrospection questionnaire. The results revealed that aptitude and motivation were the two variables that significantly contributed to learners’ gains with respect to the ‘passive’ and that L1 metalinguistic awareness explained significant variation in learners’ gains regarding the ‘past progressive’. These relationships were observed with learners’ performance on the written but not oral measures. A detailed analysis of the aptitude test components revealed that the grammatical inferencing subtask was significantly related to L2 gains on the ‘passive’ – again only with respect to learners’ performance on the written GJT. The results also revealed that learners with different aptitude profiles (i.e., low, medium, high) benefited differently from instruction on the two target features. High aptitude learners performed better than low aptitude learners on the ‘passive’ as measured by the GJT posttest. With respect to the ‘past progressive’ only learners in the medium aptitude profile group improved significantly on the written GJT. These findings confirm that language aptitude holds a role in language learning but that there are other factors (i.e., motivation and L1 metalinguistic awareness) that also contribute to L2 progress. These results also provide evidence from a classroom-based study that the grammatical difficulty of what is to be learned is a factor in determining what cognitive abilities L2 learners rely on in their efforts to learn a new language.

A hybridized society, Kuwait meshes Islamic ideologies with western culture. Linguistically, English exists across both foreign language and second language nomenclatures in the country due to globalization and internationalization which has seen increasing use of English in Kuwait. Originally consisting of listening, speaking, reading and writing, the first grade English curriculum in Kuwait was narrowed in 2002 to focus only on the development of oral English skills, and to exclude writing. Since that time, both Kuwaiti teachers and parents have expressed dissatisfaction with this curriculum on the basis that this model disadvantages their children. In first grade however, the teaching of pre-writing has remained as part of the curriculum. This research analyses the parameters of English pre-writing and writing instruction in first grade in Kuwaiti classrooms, investigates first grade English pre-writing and writing teaching, and gathers insights from parents, teachers and students regarding the appropriateness of the current curriculum. Through interviews and classroom observations, and an analysis of curriculum documents, this case study found that the relationship between oral and written language is more complex than suggested by either the Kuwaiti curriculum reform, or international literature concerning the delayed teaching of writing. Intended curriculum integration across Kuwait subjects is also far more complex than first believed, due to a developmental mismatch between English pre-writing skills and Arabic language capabilities. Findings suggest an alternative approach to teaching writing may be more appropriate and more effective for first Grade students in the current Kuwait curriculum context. They contribute also to an emerging interest in the second and foreign language fields in the teaching of writing to young learners.

The teaching practices of English reading in Indonesia provide limited opportunities for students to engage actively with texts to foster comprehension. Teaching reading through the use of self-questioning strategy has been shown to be an effective approach to improve students’ levels of questioning that promotes reading comprehension. However, for this to occur, teachers need a more effective self-questioning strategy to use it with their students. This study investigates the development of teachers’ and students’ self-questioning strategy use, the challenges faced by teachers, and the assistance that they need to implement it. The effects of the implementation of self-questioning strategy on students’ skills in generating questions about English passages are also examined. This study was conducted in Samarinda, the capital of East Kalimantan, Indonesia, where English is a foreign language to Indonesian speakers. Three teachers and their Grade 11 classes from three different secondary schools participated in a multiple-site case study which was employed to generate rich explanatory data across sites. Data were gathered from both teachers and students in the form of observations, field-notes, interviews and reflective journals. Audio and video recordings of classes and teaching of English reading were used to support the data collection. The teachers were subsequently trained in a workshop in the use of self-questioning strategy with guidelines for the use of different levels of questions based on Bloom’s taxonomy. The teachers then implemented the self-questioning strategy with students in their classrooms. Two levels of analysis were applied in this multiple-site case study. Within site study analysis involved organising the data to search for patterns for each site. Across-site study analysis was then applied to generate themes, knowledge, concepts, and connections between variables and across the study sites before triangulation with other sources of data was undertaken to draw conclusions. The findings from this study show that teachers relied on textbooks for pedagogies for teaching reading and for the kinds of questions they asked to assist in reading comprehension. This meant that both teachers and students were exposed mainly to low level questions. Thus, they faced challenges in generating high level questions in these conditions, and required assistance in order to do this. The results reveal that both teachers and students perceived that they gained benefits from the application of the self-questioning strategy. Some factors that contributed to the effectiveness of the implementation of the self-questioning strategy in this EFL context were teachers’ knowledge and confidence, the abilities of students, the nature of the class, the supportive learning environment, and sufficient time for implementation. The implications for future research included the need to examine the self-questioning strategy in a longitudinal study, and the need to focus on students’ understanding and transfer of learning to other contexts. More generally, this study shows that the self-questioning strategy can be implemented effectively in reading lessons in Grade 11 classes in an Indonesian context. The findings of the study reveal that as well as improving teachers’ and students’ abilities to generate questions about English passages, the use of self-questioning also promotes the development of a more learner-centred approach in EFL and assists teachers to ask questions in their classrooms that go beyond those provided in the textbooks. The findings suggest that research in self-questioning strategy needs to be expanded and continued because this study has shown the potential of the strategy to enhance students’ engagement in learning and potentially to foster improvements in reading comprehension.

Being able to communicate, interact and speak your mind in our time is considered one of the most essential proficiencies, especially in English which is accepted as a lingua franca. The most frequently used word in the Swedish course syllabuses for English is communication. Although there is an instant occuring communication in a classroom, some students stay silent since they fear to speak, they fear to fail and their way of preventing that from happening is to stay silent. In order to assess students language proficiencies, students must in some way demonstrate and show their knowledge to the teacher, a procedure that in some cases can be very demanding and difficult for students who suffer from speaking anxiety. The present study aimed to investigate how Swedish teachers meet and handle speaking anxiety among Swedish upper secondary students in English language education. The study was conducted through a qualitative method and semi structured interviews among four Swedish teachers. The gathered data was analyzed by thematic content analysis and resulted in three main categories, anxiety, the role of the teacher and teaching strategies. The study showed that the numbers of students suffering from speaking anxiety in Swedish upper secondary schools were in two out of four cases much higher than previous research. The study also showed that speaking anxiety has an impact on both students’ educational progress and in teaching aspects where teachers in some cases have to re-plan their planning and teaching material in order to help all students to reach the teaching goals.

Doctor of Philosophy / Curriculum and Instruction Programs / Debbie K. Mercer / Fostering student engagement in classes aligns with requirements from the latest national college English curriculum issued in 2015 in China. However, abundant research has identified that both intrinsic and extrinsic obstacles impede the creation of an authentic student-centered learning environment. Meanwhile, limited research studies have evaluated instructors’ perspectives toward student engagement at the undergraduate level embedded in the Chinese examination-oriented educational system. Therefore, this qualitative study investigated four English instructors’ experiences in student engagement and relationship building with their students in postsecondary English classes. This study was confined to English education to non-English major students in the context of Chinese higher education. Research questions were answered through a multiple case study approach guided by Self-Determination Theory, emphasizing the uniqueness of each participant’s experiences and construction of meaning. Triangulation, participants’ member check, and peer debriefing achieved the trustworthiness and rigor of the findings of this study. Results indicate that the four participants appreciated student engagement and confirmed including group class activities and fostering rapport with students as effective ways to increase student engagement. Accordingly, participants viewed themselves as organizers, facilitators, counselors, and resources. Instructors’ beliefs and students’ motivation in English teaching and learning influenced the level of student engagement. Participants struggled with constraints from large class sizes, limited pedagogical knowledge, and shortage of educational technology support. On this basis, a reformation in English curriculum and teacher credentialing is recommended to enhance student engagement. For future studies, empirical research should examine the correlational relationship between engaged pedagogies and academic performance. Further exploration of student engagement from the student perspective is also recommended to identify the most engaging pedagogical practices.

Concerned to comprehend the teaching efficacy of English teachers in Jaffna, Sri Lanka, this thesis investigated contentions by principals, retired teachers and resource personnel that Sri Lankan teachers’ lack of teaching effectiveness (teaching behaviours that influence student learning) accounted for students’ low English attainment; and counter claims by English teachers that their teaching efficacy (beliefs in their abilities to affect student learning) was undermined by classroom and other-related problems. This mixed-method research comprised two stages. In a preliminary study, 298 students and twenty-four teachers from twelve secondary schools participated in a survey designed to understand challenges encountered in the teaching and learning of English. With a similar purpose, thirty-four English lessons involving 320 students and ten teachers were observed. Interviews concerning the aspects underpinning effective English teaching were conducted with five principals, three English resource personnel and three retired teachers. In the main study, sixty-two teachers from thirty-five secondary schools were surveyed and twenty interviewed to identify factors which affected the teaching efficacy of English teachers. Participating schools were categorized vis-à-vis their students’ performance: low-performing and high-performing. Findings support English teachers’ views concerning their teaching efficacy. Teacher perception revealed associations between the lack of teaching efficacy of English teachers in low and high-performing schools, and teacher background/parental duties/self-development, classroom problems and inadequate educational resources. No explicit evidence was found that students’ poor English attainment in low-performing schools was due to their teachers’ lack of teaching effectiveness. Observations showed that students were deprived of external resources which assisted students in high-performing schools to become proficient in English. New insights about Jaffna teachers’ efficacy indicate the need for a more context-specific English language curriculum in Sri Lanka, informed by teachers’ knowledge of their students’ English learning needs at a local level if teaching efficacy and English attainment are to be enhanced.

The Aspect Hypothesis (Andersen & Shirai, 1994; 1996) proposes that the inherent lexical aspect of verbs plays a major role in the acquisition of tense-aspect (TA) morphology in both first and second language. This has been attested in most studies on TA morphology conducted with past and present TA markers. The present study examined the acquisition of Present Perfect, a rather insufficiently studied TA form from a Prototype Account, in two of its four functions, Experiential Past and Persistent Situation. The subjects were 85 L1-Spanish English language learners at intermediate and advanced levels. All participants had received formal instruction in English grammar as part of their curriculum. The data was collected through a forced-choice task with 16 situations equally distributed between the two Present Perfect functions and between telic and atelic verbs of four semantic categories: stative, activities, achievements, and accomplishments. Participants had to choose the correct verb form out of three options (Present, Past or Present Perfect) that would best complete the sentences given. The results showed evidence of clear developmental stages in the acquisition of the Present Perfect. The stages were characterized by an important role of proficiency level and lexical aspect as the more proficient participants showed a more accurate use of the target form. In addition, both the intermediate and advanced groups showed a tendency towards employing Persistent Situation with atelic verb types, whereas they used Experiential Past with telic verbs. Contrary to the predictions of the AH, the use that seemed to be first acquired and easier to learn was Persistent Situation, which obtained higher correctness rates in both groups than Experiential Past. When the results were analyzed across each aspectual verb type, the pattern of acquisition was less clear and thereby partly met the claims of the AH. This irregular trend attested in the data encouraged the argument that the acquisition of the functions of the Present Perfect may not be solely influenced by lexical aspect and verb prototypicality but several other factors may be at stake, such as sentence-type effect, input distribution, L1 transfer and rote-learned forms. Therefore, developmental stages in the acquisition of the Present Perfect should be examined in view of an interplay of "multiple factors" as already proposed by Sugaya and Shirai (2007), which work simultaneously and in a complementary fashion in the acquisitional process of TA morphology.

The globalization of the English language has rendered both positive and negative impacts to countries around the world. With the ever-increasing pervasiveness of the English language, many non-native-English-speaking (NNES hereafter) people and countries have shown growing interests in teaching and learning English. Some governments of these NNES countries have decided to implement “English” as a mandatory school subject into their compulsory curriculum in order to “connect with the world” and/or to increase their nation’s international image. However, in these NNES countries, English often does not hold official capacity and is taught as a foreign language (EFL). Although English (language) education can bring positive changes to a nation, it is not free of problems. Essentially, English education influences many NNES countries and their citizens in sociocultural, economic, and educational arenas. Some scholars, such as Tsuda (2008), assert that the “problems” and impacts are inseparable from “English language hegemony.” My country of origin, Taiwan, is one of the EFL and NNES countries that implements English education in our nation’s compulsory education. In recent decades, communicative-based English educational approaches have received great support from the Taiwanese Ministry of Education. In an EFL setting, such as that in Taiwan, the said educational approaches have complicated English education even further. In particular, the communicative-based approaches focus on teaching and practicing English oral proficiency, which average Taiwanese citizens do not need in their daily lives. Many Taiwanese people experience identity struggles and self-esteem issues because of their less-than-desirable English oral proficiency. In addition to Taiwanese, native-English-speaking (NES) teachers who are recruited to teach English in Taiwan are an integral part of the Taiwanese English education. As a Taiwanese citizen and an intercultural communication scholar, I recognize the intricate complexity of Taiwanese English education and am compelled to examine it in this dissertation as it has not received much attention in the discipline of Communication Studies. In this dissertation, I employ Identity Management Theory (IMT) (Cupach & Imahori, 1993; Imahori & Cupach, 2005) as the primary theoretical framework to examine Taiwanese English education. Particularly, I utilize IMT to study the identity construction and management (such as identity freezing), facework strategies, and intercultural relationship development among NES teachers, Taiwanese English teachers, and Taiwanese students. To carry out this research, I employ critical complete-member ethnography (CCME) (Toyosaki, 2011) as the central research methodology, because I see myself as a complete-member researcher with my research participants. I share complete-memberships with them in nuanced, complex, and contextual manners. Methodologically, CCME entails ethnography of communication, autoethnography, and critical ethnography; all are informative of my data collection methods, including ethnographic participant observation, ethnographic interview, and autoethnographic journaling inside and outside of English classes at different Taiwanese universities. These three methods helped me gather rich data for this research. To analyze and discuss the data, I employed thematic analysis (Owen, 1984) and critical examinations of consensual and conflictual theorization (Fiske, 1991; Toyosaki, 2011). Both methods render complex findings. In particular, the analysis and discussion reveal and explain (a) how the research participants manage cultural identities through marking scope, salience, and intensity with different English educational participants, (b) how they apply facework strategies to cope with identity freezing experiences, and (c) how they establish and maintain intercultural relationships with other English educational participants as they transition across different relational phases of their relationships. I deliver the findings thematically in an analytical and narrative-like manner, as I layer and weave together the field notes, the interview responses, and my autoethnographic journaling. Ultimately, I argue that English hegemony has glocalized in Taiwanese English education and is manifested through research participants’ identity management politics and their intercultural relationships. Essentially, my research shows that identity management politics is inseparable from the power differentials and inequalities imbued in Taiwanese English education. Voluntarily and/or involuntarily, the research participants and I have normalized English hegemony, embodied its presence in our knowledge production and consumption, and given English/Western ideologies consent to dominate our communicative choices, our (sub)consciousness, and our intercultural relationships. Aside from perpetuating English hegemony, I have also observed resistance against the said hegemonic impacts inside and outside of the English classrooms. In a power-laden intercultural communication context, such as Taiwanese English education, critical analyses and examinations play essential roles in revealing the identity management politics and power differentials embedded in the (mythically) “innocent” English classrooms. I further recognize how this research serves as an example to other EFL and NNES countries. In due course, I conclude that my research makes contributions to the scholarships of intercultural communication and to English education in Taiwan and beyond.

Esta tese investiga, sob a perspectiva da Linguística Sistêmico-Funcional (HALLIDAY e MATTHIESSEN, 2004,2014), os processos de retextualização empregados por estudantes de inglês como língua estrangeira na produção de textos em contextos acadêmicos. O conceito retextualização (MARCUSCHI, 2001) constitui-se na produção de um novo texto a partir de um ou mais texto(s)-fonte e trata-se de prática comum em contextos acadêmicos. Tem-se como objetivo verificar as operações de retextualização relacionadas às metafunções da linguagem – ideacional, interpessoal e textual - e como essas se materializam nos respectivos sistemas léxico-gramaticais e no gênero específico no qual se enquadram. O corpus constituise de retextualizações produzidas a partir de diferentes texto(s)-fonte. Os resultados indicam que as estratégias de retextualização estão intimamente relacionadas ao conhecimento da função que etapas e fases dos gêneros desempenham na construção de significados. Procurase contribuir para as práticas de escrita em ILE em contextos acadêmicos, oferecendo uma abordagem sistêmico-funcional dos processos de retextualização envolvidos no desenvolvimento dessa habilidade. / This study investigates, under the perspective of Systemic Functional Linguistics (HALLIDAY and MATTHIESSEN, 2004, 2014), the retextualization processes learners of English as a Foreign Language use when writing texts in academic contexts. Retextualization (MARCUSCHI, 2001) is understood as the production of a new text based on one or more source-texts and is a recurrent practice in academic contexts. The study investigated the processes of retextualization related to the metafunctions of language –ideational, experiential and textual- and their realization in the respective lexicogrammar structures as well as in the specific genre to which they are related. The corpus comprises retextualizations produced from different source-texts. The results indicate that the retextualization strategies are intimately connected to the knowledge of the function the stages and phases of the genres play in the construction of meaning. The purpose of the study is to contribute to writing practices of English as a Foreign Language in academic contexts, putting forward a systemic-functional approach to the retextualization processes involved in the development of writing skills.