This study addresses a gap in the second language writing research through examining processes occurring during the pre-writing and drafting stages of adult second language learners' writing when computer-mediated communication (CMC) pre-writing activities are involved. The theoretical framework adopted in the study is Writing-as-process approach with a focus being the pre-writing and drafting stages of the writing process. The design of the study is a parallel component mixed method design with an ongoing dominant qualitative stage and a nested less-dominant quantitative stage. In the qualitative stage of the project, two case studies were conducted: a group case study of the 60 intermediate level ESL learners who participated in the study and a more focused instrumental case study of eight learners selected based on their post-treatment writing gains. The research focus was on the social environment, including the learning task, peer interaction, mode of communication, and the intertextual connections between pre-writing discussions of the participants and their first drafts. The qualitative stage findings suggested that the CMC mode of communication (synchronous vs. asynchronous) affected differently the participants' patterns of interaction as well as the intertextual connections of their first drafts with the pre-writing discussions. In the quantitative stage, the researcher compared the first-draft writings of students who participated in asynchronous and synchronous pre-writing discussions (treatment) through the analysis of eight textual features of students' first drafts, namely: (1) syntactic complexity, (2) the amount of information present in a single focus, (3) the quantity of overall information present, (4) lexical information per clause, (5) vocabulary complexity, (6) rhetorical soundness, (7) presentation and development of main ideas, and (8) overall language use. The first five textual features, presented with continuous scores, were analyzed using five ANCOVA tests with significance level alpha being set at .05; the concomitant variables were the corresponding pre-treatment scores for each of the measures. Textual features 6-8, presented with ordinal scores, were analyzed through two-tailed Mann-Whitney U tests. While no differences were found for any of the eight proposed features when the writings of the participants in the asynchronous CMC and the synchronous CMC groups were compared, the consideration of the qualitative findings suggested that further analysis of an additional textual aspect of students' first drafts, more specifically - distinct lexical items, could be informative. The quantitative analysis of distinct lexical items of students' writings completed after synchronous and asynchronous pre-writing discussions was performed through the application of a two-tailed t-test. The results of this analysis led to the conclusion that at significance level alpha = .05, the CMC mode in which the pre-writing discussion was completed influenced differently students' first drafts on a lexical level: the intertextual connections between the pre-writing interactions and the first drafts of the participants from the asynchronous group at a lexical level were significantly stronger than those of their counterparts who participated in synchronous pre-writing discussions.

Learning in a multimodal environment entails the presentation of information in a combination of more than one mode (i.e. written words, illustrations, and sound). Past research regarding the benefits of multimodal presentation of information includes both school age children and adult learners (e.g. Koolstra, van der Voort & d'Ydewalle, 1999; Neumen & Koskinen, 1992), as well as both native and non-native language learners (e.g. d'Ydewalle & Gielen, 1992; Kothari et al, 2002). This dissertation focuses how the combination of various modalities are used by learners of differing proficiencies in English to gain better comprehension (cf. Mayer, 1997, 2005; Graber, 1990; Slykhuis et al, 2005). The addition of the written mode (closed captioning) to the already multimodal environment that exists in film and video presentations is analyzed. A Multimodal Multimedia Communicative Event is used to situate the language learner. Research questions focus on the eye movements of the participants as they read moving text both with and without the audio and video modes of information. Small case studies also give a context to four participants by bringing their individual backgrounds and observations to bear on the use of multimodal texts as language learning tools in a second or foreign language learning environment. It was found that Non Native English Speakers (NNS) (L1 Arabic) show longer eye movement patterns in reading dynamic text (closed captioning), echoing past research with static texts while Native Speakers of English (NS) tend to have quicker eye movements. In a multimodal environment the two groups also differed: NNS looked longer at the closed captioning and NS were able to navigate the text presentation quickly. While associative activation (Paivio, 2007) between the audio and print modalities was not found to alter the eye movement patterns of the NNS, participants did alternate between the modalities in search of supplementary information. Other research using additional closed captioning and subtitling have shown that viewing a video program with written text added turns the activity into a reading activity (Jensema, 2000; d'Ydewalle, 1987). The current study found this to be the case, but the results differed in regard to proficiency and strategy.

Monolingual, monocultural approaches to education in Canada overlook the tremendous cultural and linguistic resources present in our classrooms and communities. Connecting language teaching and learning with a politics of global location and broader social issues relating to migration and diversity, this dissertation explores how dichotomous understandings of ‘native’/’nonnative’ students neglect these interlocking and intersecting dimensions of experience. The dissertation employed Lather’s (2007) critical praxis methodology to generate data from a collaborative research project involving teachers, students, and university-based researchers. The purpose of this project was to explore the educational significance of engaging students in authentic forms of cultural production that drew upon their cultural and linguistic resources, diverse histories, and multiple modes of representation in classroom-based learning. While endeavouring to contribute to positive change in education practice, the dissertation directs a critical gaze toward the dominant and marginalizing practices and discourses that materialized during this work. Drawing upon ethnographic data gathered over the course of the project, including classroom observations, interviews with students and teachers, multimodal artifacts of student work, and researcher field notes, the dissertation maps moments of ‘otherness’ that marked nonnative ‘others’. Located where sameness and difference meet, these pedagogical pivot points became sites for negotiating understandings of cultural difference. The discoveries arising from the study are presented as two stories, offering what Lather (2007) calls a “double(d) reading” of the empirical work of the project. The first story articulates a critical analysis of the research, based on efforts to incorporate plurilingualism in education and meet the needs of students as plurilingual social actors. The second story deconstructs these aims, examining the desires of liberatory educators to create contexts of empowerment for immigrant students. The significance of the study is its contribution to expanding conversations about how educators and researchers interested in language learning might talk about difference and the social subject in education, adding greater complexity to address the multiple dimensions of students’ experiences in globalized educational contexts.

<p>Migrant families have long been victims of their unusual lifestyle. High poverty conditions combined with constant mobility in search for agricultural work have contributed to their challenging lifestyle. As a result, Latino migrant students are among the least likely to graduate from high school and pursue a college degree. However, in spite of such challenges faced by Latino migrant families, a small percentage of Latino migrant students graduate from high school and enroll in an institution of higher learning. The purpose of this research was to identify strategies employed by Latino migrant parents to assist their children in graduating from high school and enrolling in an institution of higher education. The study specifically focused on the role Latino migrant parents play in supporting and guiding their children into higher education. The following three questions guided this study: (a) How is parent involvement perceived and defined by Latino migrant parents of students enrolled in higher education?; (b) What barriers and support systems were present that impeded or supported their children's pursuit of higher education?; and, (c) What educational strategies are present in migrant families that have children in higher education? </p><p> Guided by a critical race theorist approach, individual interviews and focus group interviews. five themes emerged from the findings: (a) Success as Defined by Migrant Families; (b) Reinforcing the Value of Hard Work: (c) Notable Barriers and Obstacles in the Latino Migrant Community; (d) Strategies to Succeed Academically; and (e) The Impact of the Migrant Education Program. </p><p> One important and notable limitation of the study was the sample size. It is possible that a larger size would have resulted in more divergent findings and would have yielded broader recommendations. Furthermore, it is probable that only utilizing interviews as the primary information source has limited the findings. </p>

<p> This research investigates grades kindergarten - 5 English as a Second Language (ESL) and General Education (GE) co-teachers' perceptions of one another's roles, strengths, and areas for improvement in co-teaching academic language and content to English language learners (ELLs) in the GE classroom. Theories of social constructivism and cooperative learning guide this study, which approaches co-teachers' perceptions as a function of how they make meaning of their social interaction and experiences (Vyogotsky, 1978; Villa, Thousand, &amp; Nevin, 2004). Using QUAN-qual sequential explanatory design, this descriptive study uses survey methodology and small-scale follow-up interviews to create an illustrative, descriptive portrait of ESL and GE teachers' perceptions of one another's roles and professional development needs. Quantitative and qualitative survey results are triangulated with qualitative interview findings. </p><p> The integrated findings illuminate the areas of convergence and divergence in ESL and GE teachers' perceptions as co-teachers of ELLs in the GE classroom. The main conclusions are discussed with regard to existing literature on co-teaching. Overall, ESL and GE teachers appeared to have a general understanding of one another's roles, yet some perceptions diverged with regard to sharing responsibilities and whether the GE teacher was the "primary instructor". In addition, this study concludes that despite availability of some common planning time, co-teachers frequently desired to improve the quality and quantity of their co-planning, co-teaching, and reflection on students' needs. Co-teaching strengths that were identified include openness, flexibility, and the ability to differentiate instruction. However, in order to improve co-teaching, both ESL and GE teachers perceive the need to gain skills and knowledge in one another's areas of expertise. Data analysis shows that co-teachers' desired professional development topics and types of offerings interrelate thematically with perceived strengths and areas for improvement. </p><p> The study concludes with a discussion of implications for school administrators and teacher educators, including pre-service teacher educators, who want to support ESL and GE co-teachers. The discussion also addresses the implications for ESL and GE teachers whose co-teaching practice may benefit from reflection on the findings of the study. Finally, directions for future research emanating from this study are offered.</p>

<p> Disparities exist in healthcare related to language barriers and lack of cultural understanding between caregivers and recipients. Increasing the linguistic and cultural diversity of caregivers may decrease the healthcare disparities observed. The research study described in this manuscript was conducted to explore the undergraduate student experiences of nurses representing multiple cultural groups, speaking multiple languages, and representing a cross section of the population of interest. The challenge of speaking English as an additional language (EAL) and belonging to differing cultural groups presents difficulties while successfully completing a baccalaureate nursing program of study. The Theory of Margin was the theoretical framework utilized for the study conducted to achieve an understanding of the educational experience from the student perspective. A qualitative methodology of conversational interviews was utilized to explore the experiences of successful senior nursing students and recent graduates with EAL. Six different languages were spoken by study participants with EAL. Findings of the study revealed participants did not perceive having EAL to be an obstacle to learning. Language challenges resulted from the use of colloquialisms in presentations, handouts, and test materials. Study participants expressed a preference for solitary study practices and a dislike for random assignment to group projects. Support from others was reported to enhance the participants' ability to succeed. Participants expressed feelings of empathy for the patients who were also from diverse backgrounds. Implications of the findings would suggest the need for careful review of course materials to remove colloquialisms and identification of improved and supportive teaching strategies such as purposeful group assignments for nursing education faculty with similar student populations. Future research investigation may explore the perceptions of nurses with EAL who have completed their baccalaureate with more diverse patient populations and examination of the effect of simulation scenarios to improving communication skills of students with EAL.</p>

<p> The field of research in bilingualism and second language (L2) acquisition has yielded overwhelming evidence that acquiring a second language later in life will result in less accurate production and perception of consonants and vowels in the second language. These effects, in part, are a result of interference from the already formed phonetic categories shaped by early exposure to the L1 (Iverson, 2007). Phonetic categories from the L2 will, at least initially, be mapped onto phonetic categories from the L1 (Flege, 1995). Shared storage of similar lexical items from L1 and L2 may also take place resulting in differences in processing for words with similar meanings in both languages with similar meanings. Language learners of any age are able to acquire a limitless number of new vocabulary items in their L2. Whether similarities in orthography and/or phonology of semantically similar words affect access to and comprehension of these new L2 lexical items is still unclear. Another question is whether lexical items that differ only in a non-native sound contrast are processed as good or poor exemplars of the L2 word, as a poor exemplar of the L1 word, or as allophonic variation of the L2 word. </p><p> In this dissertation neural correlates of L2 words that have or do not have L1 cognates were examined. A group of monolingual English speakers and a group of late Spanish-English bilinguals were asked to decide whether pairs of cognate and non-cognate words were produced the same or differently. Words were pronounced in Standard English or with a change in the production of the stressed vowel in the word to a vowel more similar to a Spanish phoneme. The results revealed that cognate words seemed to facilitate L2 speech discrimination as evidenced by similar responses by bilinguals and monolinguals to these words and smaller or absent responses by bilingual participants to non-cognate words. This facilitation was in the form of a positive ERP response elicited by the frontal electrodes. These results provide a better understanding of why there are mispronunciations and misperceptions of lexical items in an L2 and how shared meaning influences these processes.</p>

<p> The well-documented achievement gap between English language learners (ELLs) and their native English-speaking peers (e.g., NCES, 2012) has prompted nationwide efforts to ensure that the growing population of ELLs in the U.S. meet academic proficiency standards and graduate from high school. Missing from educational studies on ELLs is an investigation of those students who succeed beyond minimum standards, defying the achievement gap. The research study presented in this paper contributes to this area by examining the experiences and understandings of five middle school ELLs who have demonstrated linguistic and academic success. These students are former ELLs who once were in need of language support but have now exited from ESL instructional services and are currently enrolled in advanced coursework. </p><p> A basic qualitative approach (Merriam, 2009) was employed, and both social constructivist (Vygotsky, 1978) and critical (Sol&oacute;rzano &amp; Yosso, 2003) theories guided the study. Four data sources from students were collected and analyzed: life history interviews, classroom observations, post-observation interviews, and photo-elicitation interviews. In addition, two of each student's teachers were interviewed individually for the purposes of triangulation. Descriptive data on district and school-wide ELL enrollment and achievement trends in advanced courses in the school was also analyzed to inform the findings. Yosso's (2005, 2006) model of Community Cultural Wealth served as a conceptual framework that informed data collection, but to the extent possible, all data was analyzed inductively (Creswell, 2007). </p><p> The results of this study shed light on the experiences and perspectives of successful former ELLs. In general, findings indicated that these ELLs experienced schooling as <i>social, "not that hard," busy,</i> and <i> technological.</i> In analyzing the ways students understood their schooling, themes emerged in two interrelated categories: external agents and <i> individual characteristics.</i> Within <i>external agents,</i> data indicated the importance of <i>role of family, peer interaction, and institutional support.</i> The <i>individual characteristics </i> included the themes of <i>negotiating agency, commitment to heritage,</i> and motivation. Each theme is discussed with affiliated sub-themes that illuminate the various ways the themes were expressed in different students. </p><p> This document concludes with broad interpretations drawn from the study based on findings and their relationship to existing research. The discussion emphasizes the complexity and heterogeneity of successful ELLs while also illuminating points of intersection in students' experiences. Lastly, implications are provided for raising expectations for ELLs and ensuring ELLs have equitable opportunities to realize academic success. These recommendations are specified for educators in the arenas of policy, practice, and research.</p>

<p>This quantitative study examined the role that metacognition and self-efficacy, through goal-setting practices, play in increasing English proficiency of middle school English learners. </p><p> The problem addressed was middle school English learners' lack of awareness of the need to be English proficient before entering high school if they want to be qualified for the A-G college-bound coursework. </p><p> A 20-question online survey was used. Students at both schools were given a preintervention survey. This was followed by an intervention at one school, which concluded with a postintervention survey at both schools. Analysis of data gathered from surveys, along with standardized assessment, culminated the study. </p><p> A McNemar test was completed to compare each variable between the pre-survey and the post-survey to test the statistical hypotheses of this study. Additionally, percentage comparisons were performed to examine relationships between pre- and post-survey responses with both Likert-scale and time options. </p><p> Findings of this study indicate that, for the experimental group, there were substantial percentage increases between pre- and post-surveys, statistically significant findings in more than one area, and a larger percentage increase in English proficiency. </p><p> Findings indicate that, for the control group middle school English learner students who did not participate in the cognitive learning intervention, there was little or no difference between the pre- and post-survey results. These findings demonstrate the critical need for metacognive and self-efficacious experiences for Latino middle school English learner students. </p><p> The overall positive trends and the statistically significant findings for the experimental group can have a direct implication for strategies used in the education of middle school English learner students. In an age-appropriate manner, cognitive learning interventions, to include increased awareness and goal setting, can be implemented for all Latino middle school English learners. </p>

<p> The purpose of this multicase study was to describe and explain the perceptions of three Spanish-English culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) high achievers on their biliteracy journeys to become educators in the United States (U.S.), by answering: What elements constitute the perspectives of three L1-Spanish/L2-English CLD high achievers on the relevance of their biliteracy experience in order to become educators in the U.S.?; What factors do these three L1-Spanish/L2-English CLD high achievers perceive as key to describe their biliteracy experience?; What relevance, if any, do these three L1-Spanish/L2-English CLD high achievers perceive their biliteracy experience had for them to become educators in the U.S.?; From the perspectives of these three L1-Spanish/L2-English CLD high-achiever educators, what impact, if any, did digital technologies have on their biliteracy experience? With a critical-pedagogy approach to multicase-study (Stake, 2006) inquiry, I used online methods to collect data on three high-achieving (GPA > 3.01) L1-Spanish graduates initially identified as limited-English-proficient by the American school system. For data collection, I used a participant-selection questionnaire, individual and group semi-structured interviews via Skype, e-journals for biliteracy autobiographies, artifact e-portfolios, my reflective e-journal, and one face-to-face unstructured interview with one participant only. Concurrently, I engaged in on-going data analysis to build meaning inductively and guide further data collection, analysis, and interpretation, until saturation, in an application of the dialectical method into research (Ollman, 2008). I included the email communications with the participants and their member checks. Two external auditors reviewed all data-collection and analytic procedures. I analyzed each case individually followed by the cross-case analysis. The findings indicated the importance of family and L1-community support, host-culture insiders as mentors, access to information, empowerment by means of conscientization, and the participants' advocacy of others by becoming educators. In this way, the study identified how the participants escaped the statistics of doom, which helps understand how to better serve growing L2-English student populations. The study closed with a discussion from the viewpoint of reviewed literature and critical pedagogy, my interpretation of the findings, and suggestions for future praxis in education and research.</p>