<p>Historically during domestication of animals, tameness towards humans was likely the most desired trait and therefore bred on. The red junglefowl (Gallus gallus) is the wild progenitor of all domestic chicken breeds and earlier studies present clear morphological, physiological and behavioural differences between domesticated breeds and the non-domesticated red junglefowl. These changes may be the result of altered gene expression - pleiotropy or linked genes. The aim of this thesis was to evaluate (1) effects of tameness selection on social behaviour towards conspecifics and (2) social behaviour differences between the sexes. Two generations of red junglefowl, P0 and its offspring F1, were studied. Both generations were divided into three selection lines (tame, intermediate or fearful), depending on their results in a fear of humans test.  A novel type of social reinstatement test was set up, containing a non-social area without stimulus, and a social area containing a mirror serving as stimulus animals. The social and aggressive behaviours performed towards the mirror were recorded, so was the time spent in the social versus non-social part. An undisturbed behaviour test was performed, as well as a standardized social reinstatement test. The P0-females performed significantly more social behaviour (p=0.008) at 26 weeks than males in the mirror test, and females also displayed significantly more social (p=0.04) and agonistic behaviour (p<0.001) than males in the undisturbed behaviour test. The social reinstatement test displayed a significant effect between the selection lines with regards to sociality. This suggests that there are immediate selection responses in early domestication.</p>

<p>Spider monkeys (<em>Ateles</em> sp.) are common in zoological parks, but rare in scientific publications. Studies on tool use in primates have mostly focused on impressive tool users such as chimpanzees. Spider monkeys fulfill several criteria that are known to be associated with tool use. To be able to give an appropriate environment and enrichment for spider monkeys in captivity more knowledge is needed about their cognitive abilities. In this study we wanted to see if five male spider monkeys kept in a zoo could learn to use tools to reach a reward. Experiment 1 examined the subjects’ ability to learn to use a stick-tool to extract honey from a tube and experiment 2 their ability to learn to use a rake-tool to reach a reward. Each experiment consisted of three parts; A – monkeys got tools and treat next to each other; B – monkeys were shown how to use tool to get treat by a keeper and then got tools and treats next to each other; C – monkeys got tools and treats so they just could pull out the tool and get the treat. In both experiments at least two different spider monkeys succeeded with the zero-order manipulation task to pull out the tool and get treat in part C. Longer studies need to be conducted to be able to say if spider monkeys are able to learn a more complex tool using behavior as needed in part A and B.</p>

<p>Only in primates is permanent male-female association the most widespread social structure of all. The continuous presence of resident males in the social group can have significant impacts on female fitness, both in forms of costs and benefits. In this study I investigate particular short-term benefits and costs of resident males to females in a population of ursine colobus (<em>Colobus vellerosus</em>). I hypothesise that for females permanent association with males result in certain benefits and certain costs, exceeding those provided or imposed by other females. The results indicate that female derive greater benefits from males than from females during intergroup encounters and in the form of vigilance since males were the main participants in intergroup encounter and were more vigilant than females. I could not confirm any type of behaviour employed by resident males that is costly to females. However, the rarity and subtleness of some costly male behaviours imply that more data is needed before making a conclusion on their absence or occurrence in this population and I purpose that herding behaviour could occur at my study site. Moreover, multi-male groups (MM-groups) showed higher rates of vigilance than single-male groups (SM-groups) and had a tendency to experiencing fewer intergroup encounters than SM-groups. I interpret the former as a result of the demanding social conditions in the MM-groups. The latter indicate that females may benefit from MM-group living through a decrease in intergroup encounters.</p>

<p></p><p>In salmonids, the decision to migrate or remain resident is influenced by the status, and hence condition, of individuals. Status has been suggested to arise from the temperament of fish. In this study the links between standard metabolic rate and the levels of aggressiveness and shy/boldness were examined for 0+, hatchery-raised brown trout (<em>Salmo trutta</em>). I hypothesized, from the results of earlier studies (Cutts <em>et al</em>., 1998; Yamamoto <em>et al</em>., 1998), that high metabolic rates (MR) would be positively correlated to levels of aggression and boldness. The study was conducted in 200 L aquaria in which aggressiveness was measured by allowing each fish to interact with a mirror image of itself, and shy/boldness was tested by measuring the amount of time a fish used before exploring a new area. Standard metabolic rate was measured in a flow-through respirometer. In contrast to my expectations, there was no correlation between the different behavioural measures and the metabolic rate of fish. Also, no correlation between boldness and aggressiveness of fish was found. In additional testing aggressiveness correlated positively with the condition of fish (in coherence with Harwood <em>et al</em>., 2003) but, contrary to earlier studies (Överli <em>et al.,</em> 2004; Schjolden & Winberg, 2007), not with the speed of acclimatization. The difference in results between this test and earlier studies, concerning the degree of correlation between MR and aggressiveness, suggests that the strength of this link differs between species of salmonids. Also, it may suggest changeability in the MR – behaviour link in different environments. Last, the status and condition of individuals cannot be unambiguously explained by temperament alone, but arise from a wider array of physiological and environmental factors.</p><p> </p>

<p> </p><p>ABSTRACT</p><p> </p><p>Migration is common among populations of brown trout (Salmo trutta) and Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). However, not all individuals in the same population migrate, a phenomenon referred to as partial migration. The aim of this thesis was to investigate if an individual’s behaviour and metabolic rate influences its decision to migrate and how such knowledge may be used when trying to produce hatchery-raised smolts with as high a proportion of migrating individuals as possible. In paper I the influence of reduced food ration on the proportion and swimming speed of migrating brown trout and Atlantic salmon smolts was investigated. Furthermore, the standard metabolic rate (SMR) of migrating and non-migrating individuals was compared. In paper II, a laboratory experiment, SMR was correlated to the behaviour of individual brown trout and Atlantic salmon. Dominant fish of both species had a higher SMR than subordinates (paper II). In addition, migrant brown trout had a higher SMR than non-migrant trout when given a normal food ration, whereas no difference in SMR between migrating and non-migrating salmon could be seen (paper I). When administered low food rations, smolts of both species migrated faster than smolts given a normal food ration, and the proportion of migrating smolts was higher for salmon given less food when the size difference for smolts from the two feeding regimes was large (paper I). Other factors that influenced migration speed were the degree of smolt development and water temperature (paper I). SMR was not correlated with aggressiveness, or with different measurements of boldness. Moreover, aggression and boldness were not correlated with each other (paper II). Trout showed a higher level of aggressiveness and acclimated more rapidly to laboratory conditions than salmon (paper II). In summary, there was no support for the existence of coping styles in migratory Atlantic salmon and brown trout. Instead, metabolic rates were related to both migratory behaviour and social status. Furthermore, an individual’s decision to migrate was influenced by ration size.</p>

Aggregative feeding is widespread in Lepidopteran larvae suggesting that this behavior serves on adaptive function. Many studies of the potential benefits of aggregative feeding in Lepidopteran larvae have been conducted. However, no studies have directly examined the benefits of cryptic larvae being both chemically defended and gregarious. Group feeding occurs disproportionately more in chemically defended larvae than in larvae that have no chemical defense. Most of these larvae are cryptic when they are most highly aggregated and most vulnerable to predation. In this study, the benefits of group feeding in terms of decreased predation were explored in first instar larvae of pipevine swallowtail larvae, Battus philenor, a species that exhibits chemical sequestration. Contrary to our expectation, we found that groups of larvae fed a diet with high levels of the toxin aristolochic acid, which they sequester naturally and use as a defense against natural enemies, had significantly lower survivorship due to predation in both the field and in the laboratory experiments compared to groups of larvae fed a diet with low aristolochic acid content. We also found that aristolochic acid does not deter the generalist predator Hippodamia convergens, the ladybird beetle, suggesting that this compound is not a universal predator deterrent as previously assumed. Thus, instead of finding a benefit to group feeding and chemical defense in cryptic larvae, we have found a negative impact of group feeding in this population of B. philenor. Based on this evidence, we speculate that other benefits of group feeding might be outweighing the negative consequences of increased predation during the first instar. Future research on chemical defense, aposematism, and aggregative feeding should take into consideration that chemical defenses might not be universally effective against all natural enemies.

ABSTRACT   Migration is common among populations of brown trout (Salmo trutta) and Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). However, not all individuals in the same population migrate, a phenomenon referred to as partial migration. The aim of this thesis was to investigate if an individual’s behaviour and metabolic rate influences its decision to migrate and how such knowledge may be used when trying to produce hatchery-raised smolts with as high a proportion of migrating individuals as possible. In paper I the influence of reduced food ration on the proportion and swimming speed of migrating brown trout and Atlantic salmon smolts was investigated. Furthermore, the standard metabolic rate (SMR) of migrating and non-migrating individuals was compared. In paper II, a laboratory experiment, SMR was correlated to the behaviour of individual brown trout and Atlantic salmon. Dominant fish of both species had a higher SMR than subordinates (paper II). In addition, migrant brown trout had a higher SMR than non-migrant trout when given a normal food ration, whereas no difference in SMR between migrating and non-migrating salmon could be seen (paper I). When administered low food rations, smolts of both species migrated faster than smolts given a normal food ration, and the proportion of migrating smolts was higher for salmon given less food when the size difference for smolts from the two feeding regimes was large (paper I). Other factors that influenced migration speed were the degree of smolt development and water temperature (paper I). SMR was not correlated with aggressiveness, or with different measurements of boldness. Moreover, aggression and boldness were not correlated with each other (paper II). Trout showed a higher level of aggressiveness and acclimated more rapidly to laboratory conditions than salmon (paper II). In summary, there was no support for the existence of coping styles in migratory Atlantic salmon and brown trout. Instead, metabolic rates were related to both migratory behaviour and social status. Furthermore, an individual’s decision to migrate was influenced by ration size.

Spider monkeys (Ateles sp.) are common in zoological parks, but rare in scientific publications. Studies on tool use in primates have mostly focused on impressive tool users such as chimpanzees. Spider monkeys fulfill several criteria that are known to be associated with tool use. To be able to give an appropriate environment and enrichment for spider monkeys in captivity more knowledge is needed about their cognitive abilities. In this study we wanted to see if five male spider monkeys kept in a zoo could learn to use tools to reach a reward. Experiment 1 examined the subjects’ ability to learn to use a stick-tool to extract honey from a tube and experiment 2 their ability to learn to use a rake-tool to reach a reward. Each experiment consisted of three parts; A – monkeys got tools and treat next to each other; B – monkeys were shown how to use tool to get treat by a keeper and then got tools and treats next to each other; C – monkeys got tools and treats so they just could pull out the tool and get the treat. In both experiments at least two different spider monkeys succeeded with the zero-order manipulation task to pull out the tool and get treat in part C. Longer studies need to be conducted to be able to say if spider monkeys are able to learn a more complex tool using behavior as needed in part A and B.

Ett stort antal utrotningshotade djurarter ingår idag i bevarandeprogram världen över. Små populationer hålls då i skyddade miljöer, exempelvis i djurparker, och i många fall är målet att återintroducera djur till naturen. Dessvärre är det vanligt att det uppstår problem när djur återintroduceras vilket kan bero på beteendemässiga anpassningar som uppkommit under tiden i fångenskap. Syftet med den här studien var därför att undersöka beteendemässiga aspekter på bevarandeavel och försöka ta reda på om och hur djur påverkas beteendemässigt av att hållas i skyddade fångenskapsmiljöer. I projektet användes röda djungelhöns (Gallus gallus) som en fallstudie. En granskning av beteendevariation mellan olika populationer av röda djungelhöns i fångenskap konstaterade skillnader i antipredatorbeteende, socialt beteende och födosöksbeteende. Vid en genetisk studie av samma populationer upptäcktes dessutom ett samband mellan genetisk diversitet och beteendevariation som potentiellt kan vara intressant ur ett bevarandeperspektiv. Socialt beteende, födosöksbeteende och olika aspekter av rädsla studerades vidare i populationer med olika bakgrund som fick växa upp tillsammans i en grupp. Resultaten visade att populationerna bara skilde sig åt i rädslebeteenden vilket antyder att denna typ av beteende i större utsträckning påverkas av långvarig avel i en viss fångenskapsmiljö medan socialt beteende och födosöksbeteende istället kan bero på den omedelbara sociala eller fysiska miljön. Antipredatorbeteende studerades också i en longitudinell studie av två populationer över fyra generationer och det visade sig att populationerna blev mer lika varandra ju längre tiden gick då de hölls under likadana miljöförhållanden. Det verkar alltså som om antipredatorbeteende kan förändras av avel i en viss miljö efter bara ett fåtal generationer. Utöver detta studerades även dagliga beteendemönster i olika djurparksmiljöer samt dygnsrytm av galanden hos både vilda populationer och djurparkspopulationer inom artens naturliga utbredningsområde. Resultaten tyder på att sådana beteendemönster inte påverkas nämnvärt av att djur hålls i fångenskap. Fallstudien som presenteras här är ett av de första försöken att, ur ett bevarandeperspektiv, studera hur fångenskapsmiljöer kan påverka djurs beteende och resultaten talar för att dessa aspekter är viktiga att ta hänsyn till vid planering av bevarandeavel. / A number of endangered species are currently involved in conservation breeding programs worldwide. Conservation breeding deals with propagation of captive populations, often with the ultimate aim of releasing animals into the wild. However, an alarmingly high proportion of reintroductions have not been successful in establishing viable populations, possibly due to behavioural problems caused by genetic adaptation to captivity. The main aim of this thesis was to study behavioural aspects of conservation breeding and investigate whether, and how, maintenance of small populations in captivity cause behavioural modifications, which could affect the success of reintroductions. Throughout the project, the red junglefowl (Gallus gallus) was used as a case study, representing animals maintained in captive populations. A screening of behavioural variation revealed that captive populations differ in antipredator, social and exploratory behaviours, all of which are central components of life in the wild. A correlation was also found between genetic diversity and behavioural variation. This has not been reported before and may potentially have interesting implications for conservation breeding. When studying the behaviour of populations with different backgrounds being raised together as one group, the results suggested that fear-related behaviours may be more affected by long-term breeding in a certain captive environment than social and exploratory behaviours which seem to be more influenced by the immediate social or physical environment. A longitudinal study of antipredator behaviour in two populations across four generations revealed that the populations became more similar over time when maintained under identical conditions. This demonstrates that effects of a new environment can appear after only a few generations. Furthermore, daily behavioural routines in different captive environments as well as diurnal crowing rhythms in both wild and captive populations were studied in the species’ natural region of distribution and the results suggest that such behavioural patterns are not affected by the captive environments to any notable extent. The present case study is one of the first attempts to, from a conservation perspective, study how captive environments can affect behaviour and the results imply that these aspects are important to take into consideration in conservation breeding programs.

Odor discrimination ability was tested in four female South African fur seals (Arctocephalus pusillus pusillus) using a food-rewarded two-choice instrumental conditioning paradigm. The seals’ ability to distinguish between members of homologous series of aliphatic ketones (2-butanone to 2-heptanone) and alcohols (1-butanol to 1-heptanol) was assessed. The results showed that three out of four seals successfully discriminated between all of their stimulus combinations in both classes of odorants. One seal succeeded to reach the discrimination criterion with all 2-ketones but failed with all 1-alcohols. No significant correlation between odor discrimination performance and structural similarity of the odorants in terms of differences in carbon chain length was found in either of the two chemical classes. Furthermore, it was found that the 2-ketones were significantly better discriminated than the 1-alcohols. The fact that both classes of odorants are known to be present in the natural environment of seals provides a possible explanation as to why most of the seals were able to successfully discriminate between them. The results of the present study support the notion that the sense of smell may play an important role in behavioral contexts such as social communication, foraging and reproductive behavior of fur seals.