O conhecimento sobre o balanço de água no solo é essencial ao manejo do sistema solo-água- planta. Esta pesquisa objetivou estudar os componentes do balaço de água em Cambissolo cultivado com meloeiro irrigado por gotejamento, com e sem cobertura da superfície, em Baraúna-RN. Em área experimental de 20 m x 50 m cultivou-se melão Amarelo, variedade AF- 646, no espaçamento de 2,00 m x 0,35 m, num total de dez linhas de plantas de 50 m de extensão cada. A 1/3 e 2/3 da extensão de cada linha de plantas foram instalados quatro tensiômetros, um em cada uma das profundidades 0,1; 0,2; 0,3 e 0,4 m. A instalação foi feita adjacente à linha de irrigação (0,1 m da linha de plantas) entre duas plantas selecionadas, com os tensiômetros espaçados 0,1 m entre si. Em cinco linhas aleatórias fez-se a cobertura com folhas secas de bananeira (Musa sp.) ao longo da linha de gotejamento numa faixa de 0,5 m. Nas outras cinco manteve-se o cultivo sem cobertura. Assim, o experimento consistiu de dois tratamentos, com dez repetições, em quatro períodos fenológicos: inicial (7-22 DAS dias após a semeadura), vegetativo (22-40 DAS), frutificação (40-58 DAS) e maturação (58-70 DAS). As precipitações pluviais foram medidas com pluviômetro e as armazenagens de água estimadas pelo método do trapézio, a partir das leituras dos tensiômetros e das curvas de retenção. Para a determinação das densidades de fluxo de água no limite inferior do volume de controle de solo (0,3 m), foram considerados os tensiômetros nas profundidades 0,2; 0,3 e 0,4 m, sendo que o tensiômetro a 0,3 m foi utilizado para estimar o conteúdo de água no solo, com uso da curva de retenção de água para esta profundidade, e os outros dois para o cálculo do gradiente de potencial total. As densidades de fluxo foram calculadas pela equação de Darcy-Buckingham, com a condutividade hidráulica do solo determinada pelo método do perfil instantâneo. O deflúvio superficial foi desconsiderado e a evapotranspiração real da cultura foi calculada pela equação do balanço de massas. Concluiu-se que: a) à 0,2 m de profundidade a condutividade hidráulica do solo foi baixa; b) o manejo da irrigação com tensiômetros permitiu redução de 45% na lâmina de água em relação à usualmente praticada na região, sem afetar a produtividade da cultura; c) houve efeito positivo da cobertura do solo sobre a armazenagem de água, especialmente nos estádios inicial e vegetativo da cultura; d) o método do balanço de água no solo mostrou-se eficiente na estimativa da evapotranspiração real, em condições de cultivo de meloeiro irrigado; e) a aplicação de uma única lâmina diária de irrigação, mesmo em curto intervalo de tempo, apresenta risco de perda de água por drenagem interna, especialmente nas fases inicial e vegetativa do meloeiro; f) a variabilidade espacial da densidade de fluxo foi elevada quando houve ocorrência de precipitação pluvial; g) não houve efeito da cobertura do solo na evapotranspiração da cultura, nem sobre a produtividade e características pós-colheita dos frutos; h) a curva de coeficiente de cultivo apresenta grandes limitações quando utilizada para fornecer água para o meloeiro. / The knowledge about the soil water balance is essential to soil-water-plant system management. Thus, this research aimed to study the water balance components in an Inceptsol cropped with muskmelon under drip irrigation, with and without surface covering, in the county of Baraúna, Rio Grande do Norte State, Brazil (05º04\'48 S, 37º37\'00 W). In an experimental area of 20 m x 50 m grew up AF-646 muskmelon, spaced 2.00 m x 0.35 m, in a total of ten plants lines 50 m long each. At 1/3 and 2/3 of the length of each plant line, four tensiometers were installed, one in each depths of 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 and 0.4 m. The installation was made adjacent to the irrigation line (0.1 m from the plant line) between two selected plants 0.1 m apart. In five random lines, it was made a covering with dry leaves of banana (Musa sp.) along the drip line in the range of 0.5 m. In the other five there was no covering. Thus, the experiment consisted of two treatments whith ten repetitions in four phenological stages: initial (7-22 DAS - days after sowing), growing (22-40 DAS), fruiting (40-58 DAS) and maturing (58-70 DAS). Rainfall was measured with rain gauge and water storage estimated by trapezoidal method, from tensiometer readings and retention curves. To determine the soil water flux densities at the soil depth 0.3 m, tensiometers at depths 0.2, 0.3 and 0.4 m were considered; the tensiometer at 0.3 m was used to estimate the soil water content, from the soil water retention curve at this depth, and the other two to calculate the soil water total potential gradient. The flux densities were calculated by the Darcy-Buckingham equation, with the hydraulic conductivity being determined by the instantaneous profile method. There was no runoff and the crop actual evapotranspiration was calculated by the mass balance equation. It could be concluded that: a) at 0.2 m soil depth the hydraulic conductivity was low; b) controlled irrigation with tensiometers allowed a reduction of 45% in water application in relation to commonly used practice in the region, without crop productivity change; c) there was positive effect of soil covering on water storage, especially at the initial and vegetative stages; d) the method of soil water balance was efficient to estimate actual evapotranspiration, under irrigated muskmelon conditions; e) the application of a single irrigation depth daily, even in a short time period, presents risk of water to be lost by internal drainage, especially at initial and vegetative muskmelon stages; f) the spatial variability of soil water flux density was high when rainfall incidence occurred; g) there was no effect of covering on crop actual evapotranspiration, neither on yield and post-harvest fruits characteristics; h) the crop coefficient curve has severe limitations when used to provide water to the muskmelon.

A irrigação é considerada uma das mais importantes tecnologias empregadas para aumentar a produtividade e permitir maior eficiência e estabilidade na produção agrícola. A sua adoção deve ser baseada na viabilidade técnica e econômica do projeto, obtida por meio da análise detalhada e cuidadosa dos fatores climáticos, agronômicos e econômicos envolvidos. O manejo eficiente pode ser definido como o uso criterioso dos recursos disponíveis para se atingir um determinado objetivo. No caso da irrigação, o manejo eficiente objetiva maximizar a produção vegetal com o menor custo possível, tanto em quesitos ambientais quanto econômicos. Para tanto, necessita-se do desenvolvimento de um sistema tecnologicamente eficiente, de reduzido custo e de facilidade de instalação e manutenção. Assim, uma rede inteligente de estações meteorológicas, capaz de monitorar o ambiente em tempo real, de adaptar-se aos diversos estágios fenológicos da planta, aos diversos solos e culturas e de comunicar-se entre si e com um servidor torna-se necessário. Este projeto teve como objetivo o desenvolvimento e emprego de uma rede de estações meteorológicas sem fio, de baixo custo e de fácil manutenção e implantação, para a determinação da evapotranspiração de referência, e do conteúdo de água no solo para o eficiente manejo de irrigação. Para que tal rede de sensores seja implantada, há a necessidade de que os módulos eletrônicos possuam microcontroladores de baixo consumo energético, uma vez que eles serão alimentados por baterias e painéis solares, e com capacidade para executar os algoritmos de inferência das variáveis de medida, de calibração e correção de tais medidas, de comunicação com os demais elementos da rede e de executar o controlador de irrigação, baseado em Redes Neurais Artificiais. A abordagem da inteligência artificial utilizada possui a capacidade de aprender e estimar parâmetros a partir de sua base de treinamento e das condições que a cercam. Além das capacidades do microcontrolador, o módulo dos sensores deverá possuir elementos para aferir a temperatura e a umidade do ambiente, a radiação solar, a temperatura e o conteúdo de água no solo, além de um módulo de comunicação sem fio. O sistema desenvolvido foi testado nas estufas do INCT-EI/ESALQ/USP manejando a irrigação da cultura do pimentão vermelho Capsicum annuum L. cv. All Big, durante o período de 25/01/2018 a 31/07/2018. Após o treinamento da rede neural artificial, o sistema desenvolvido determinou a evapotranspiração de referência com um coeficiente de determinação de 0,968, com um erro médio absoluto de 0,055 mm e com um valor-P de 1,02 10-45 para um intervalo de confiança de 95%. Sendo assim, verificou-se que a rede de estações meteorológicas desenvolvida é capaz de estimar a evapotranspiração de referência a partir de dados provenientes de sensores de reduzido custo financeiro e com dados meteorológicos faltantes. / Irrigation is considered one of the most important technologies used to increase productivity and to allow greater efficiency and stability in agricultural production. Its adoption must be based on technical and economic feasibility of the project, obtained by means of a detailed and careful analysis of the climatic, agronomic and economic factors involved. Efficient management can be defined as the judicious use of available resources to achieve a given goal. In the case of irrigation, efficient management aims to maximize plant production at the lowest possible cost, both in environmental and economic aspects. This requires the development of a technologically efficient system, which is low cost and ease of installation and maintenance. Thus, an intelligent network of weather stations capable of monitoring the environment in real time, adapting to the plant\'s various phenological stages, diverse soils and cultures and communicating with each other and with a server becomes necessary. This project aimed at the development and use of the wireless station network which is low cost, easy maintenance, and deployment for the determination of reference evapotranspiration and soil water content for efficient irrigation management. In order for such a sensor network to be implemented, there is a need for such modules to have low energy microcontrollers, since they will be powered by batteries and solar panels, and capable of performing the inference algorithms of the measurement, calibration, and correction of such measures, of communication with the other elements of the network and of executing the irrigation controller, based on Artificial Neural Networks. The artificial intelligence approach used has the capacity to learn and estimate parameters based on its training base and the conditions surrounding it. In addition to the capabilities of the microcontroller, the sensor module must have elements to measure ambient temperature and humidity, brightness, temperature and soil water content, as well as a wireless communication module. The developed system was tested in the greenhouses of INCT-EI/ESALQ/USP managing the irrigation of the red bell pepper crop Capsicum annuum L. cv. All Big, during the days of 01/25/2018 to 31/07/2010. After the artificial neural network training, the developed system determined reference evapotranspiration with a determination coefficient of 0.968, with an absolute mean error of 0.055 mm and a P-value of 1.02 10-45 for a confidence interval of 95%. Thus, it was verified that the developed weather-station network is able to estimate the reference evapotranspiration with low-cost sensors and with missing meteorological data.

Para promover o desenvolvimento sustentável e a conservação dos recursos naturais, torna-se fundamental compreender e quantificar a dinâmica do balanço hídrico regional. Comumente, a variabilidade dos componentes do balanço hídrico é causada por variações naturais do clima, contudo, as atividades antrópicas também podem provocar significativas variações espaço-temporais na dinâmica hidrológica da bacia hidrográfica. Ao reduzir a cobertura vegetal do solo, através do desflorestamento ou colheita de culturas anuais, promove-se uma redução na evapotranspiração e conseqüentemente, um aumento na vazão da bacia. Por conseguinte, realizou-se neste estudo a análise das relações entre as variações dos componentes do balanço hídrico e da área com solo exposto na bacia do rio Verde, entre 1995 a 2001 (Período 1) e 2002 a 2008 (Período 2). Para tanto, foi utilizado um banco de dados hidrológicos, climatológicos e de sensoriamento remoto, assim como técnicas de processamento, análise de consistência, testes de significância e modelagem do SEBAL. De acordo com os resultados obtidos neste trabalho, a precipitação pluviométrica anual nos Períodos 1 e 2 não diferiram, resultando em uma lâmina média de 1.405,7mm. Contudo, a vazão média anual da bacia do rio Verde, no Período 1, foi 22% menor que a do Período 2, enquanto que, na sub-bacia denominada Cana, esta diferença foi de 27,7%. Nesta sub-bacia, as vazões anuais do Período 1 foram predominantemente menores, ou bem próximas, daquelas registradas no Período 2, mesmo nos anos do primeiro período em que registrou maior lâmina de precipitação. Da mesma forma, as vazões médias mensais de Fevereiro, Março, Maio, Junho, Julho e Agosto do segundo período foram maiores do que aquelas registradas no primeiro. A lâmina escoada no rio, no primeiro semestre de 2007 (Período 2) e 2001 (Período 1), foi de 404,3 e 188,9mm, respectivamente, sendo que não foi identificado diferença estatística na precipitação deste período. A estimativa da evapotranspiração real () resultou em uma lâmina média de 899,3mm.ano-1, em ambos os períodos. Considerando a precipitação anual, a representava 67,2% das perdas de água, no balanço hídrico da sub-bacia Cana. A modelagem do SEBAL indicou que, na sub-bacia Cana, a evapotranspiração real, em Junho de 2001 e 2007, foi em média de 166,3 e 148,7mm, respectivamente. Em média, 57,3% da área desta sub-bacia apresentava solo exposto entre Junho e Julho, de 1995 a 2008, sendo que em 2001 e 2007, esta proporção era de 50,1 e 53,8%, respectivamente. Constatou-se, também, que a variação da precipitação e percentual de solo exposto, em Junho, não poderia ser responsável por toda variabilidade de vazão da sub-bacia Cana, entre 1995 e 2008. / In order to promote the sustainable development and natural resources conservation, it is important to understand and quantify the dynamics of regional water balance. Generally, the variability of water balance components is produced by natural climate fluctuations. However, anthropic activity may also causes significantly spacetemporal variations in hydrological dynamics of a watershed. Reducing soil cover, by deforestation or crops harvesting, promotes a reduction in evapotranspiration and, as a consequence, an increment of watershed flow. Due to these, this study analyzed the relations between the variations in water balance components and area with bare soil for the Verde River watershed, in 1995 to 2001 (Period 1) and 2002 to 2008 (Period 2). In this way, there were used hydrologic, climatologic and remote sensing databases, even as processing techniques, consistency analysis, significance tests, and modeling with SEBAL. According to the results obtained in this study, the annual precipitation for the Periods 1 and 2 do not differed, resulting in a mean water depth of 1,405.7mm. On the other hand, mean annual Verde River watershed flow was 22% less for the Period 1 as compared to the Period 2. For the sub-watershed named Cana, this difference was 27.7%. In this sub-watershed annual flow for the Period 1 was predominantly lower, sometimes equal, to those obtained for the Period 2, even for those years of the Period 1 where was determined higher precipitation. In this same way, monthly flow averages were higher for the Period 2 in February, March, May, June, July, and August. Total flow for the 1st semester, 2007 (Period 2) and 2001 (Period 1) was 404.3 and 188.9mm, respectively. No statistical difference was found for precipitation of this period. For both periods, average estimates of evapotranspiration were 899.3mm year-1. This suggests that evapotranspiration corresponded to 67.2% of water losses of the water balance in sub-watershed Cana. The SEBAL modeling indicated that, for the sub-watershed Cana, the actual evapotranspiration, in June, 2001 and 2007, was 166.3 and 148.7mm, respectively. In terms of mean values, 57.3% of the area of this sub-watershed was composed of bare soil between June and July, 1995 to 2008. For 2001 and 2007, this proportion was 50.1 and 53.8%, respectively. There was also observed that the variation in precipitation and percentage of bare soil in June might not be capable of promote all the variability in flow of the sub-watershed Cana for the period between 1995 and 2008.

Resumo: O feijão é o alimento de muitos brasileiros sendo produzido em todo o território nacional, em diversas condições climáticas e de cultivo. Apesar de sua grande importância, a produção nacional dessa leguminosa é desuniforme, pois na maioria dos casos, é cultivado em áreas com baixo nível de tecnologia e por não haver um completo conhecimento das condições meteorológicas predominantes durante as épocas de cultivo. O Estado de São Paulo, de maneira geral, apresenta períodos secos e chuvosos bem definidos. No período das águas, embora haja a ocorrência de precipitação pluviométrica, esta pode ter distribuição irregular, comprometendo a produtividade do feijoeiro quando o veranico coincidir com fases críticas quanto ao requerimento de água. A irrigação regulariza o fornecimento hídrico, assegurando a produção. O presente trabalho teve por objetivo avaliar três métodos de manejo de irrigação, quais sejam: por tensiômetria, tanque "Classe A", e pela evapotranspiração estimada pela equação de Penman Monteith. A semeadura do feijão foi realizada no dia 29/09/2008 utilizando a cultivar BRS Pontal, no espaçamento de 0,45 m entre linhas com distribuição de 14 sementes por metro. Anteriormente ao experimento, foi plantada a cultura de aveia preta (Avena stringosa Schred), na área que se encontrava em pousio há três anos, sendo o solo de textura média argilosa. Os tratamentos foram irrigados com um sistema de gotejamento superficial. Os resultados avaliados foram o balanço de água do solo, a evapotranspiração e a produtividade de grãos. Conclui-se que os métodos de manejo avaliados diferiram entre si no plantio convencional e todos apresentaram produtividades significativamente superiores à da testemunha não irrigada. No sistema preparo convencional do solo o manejo da irrigação... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract:Beans are the food of many Brazilians being produced throughout the country, in different climatic and cultivation conditions. Although its importance, the national production of this legume is floating, as in most cases, is grown in areas with low level of technology and the knowledge lack weather conditions prevailing during the growing season. Has Sao Paulo State has, in general, periods of rainy and dry well defined. In the rainy season, although the occurrence of rainfall, it can have uneven distribution, affecting bean yield when the drought to coincide with critical stages on the water requirement. The irrigation regulates water supply, ensuring the production. The purpose of this study is evaluating three methods of irrigation management: tensiometer, the Class A Pan, and the evapotranspiration estimated by the Penman Monteith equation. The sowing of beans was held on 29/09/2008 using the BRS Pontal, spaced 0.45 m between rows with distribution of 14 seeds per meter. Before the experiment, the crop was planted oat (Avena stringosa Schred) in the area that was fallow for three years, the soil of medium texture soil. The treatments were irrigated with a drip irrigation system. The results were evaluated the balance of soil moisture, evapotranspiration and yield. Concluded that the management methods evaluated differed in conventional tillage and all had yields significantly higher than the control without irrigation. In the conventional system of soil water management was most effective use of water applied in relation to no-tillage system. / Orientador: João Carlos Cury Saad / Coorientador: Antonio Ribeiro da Cunha / Banca: Dirceu Maximino Fernandes / Banca: José Alves Júnior / Mestre

L'objectif de ce travail est d'étudier, par une approche numérique bidimensionnelle, l'effet de l'interaction sol-végétation-atmosphère et de l'extraction par des racines d'arbres isolés sur le comportement thermo-hydro-mécanique des sols argileux sensibles au retrait-gonflement. Le cas de l'interaction sol-végétation-atmosphère a été étudié en se basant sur les données obtenues sur le site de Mormoiron instrumenté par le BRGM avec des sondes capacitives Humitub et des extensomètres. Afin d'exploiter les données de teneur en eau enregistrée, on a commencé par un travail expérimental d'étalonnage en laboratoire. L'étalonnage a été réalisé sur différents matériaux. L'influence de la variation de température et du type de sol sur la mesure de teneur en eau a été étudiée. Les résultats semblent montrer que les sondes capacitives comme Humitub ne sont pas adaptées à des sols argileux comme l'argile de Mormoiron. Les études bibliographiques ont aussi montré la dépendance importante des mesures effectuées par cette méthode capacitive vis-à-vis de la fréquence, surtout dans le cas des sols ayant une capacité d'échange cationique élevée. Un modèle bidimensionnel de l'interaction sol-végétation-atmosphère et un modèle bidimensionnel d'extraction d'eau par des racines ont été développés afin de décrire les effets climatiques et végétaux sur le comportement thermo-hydro-mécanique d'un milieu non saturé. Ces modèles ont été implantés dans le code de calcul aux éléments finis θ-STOCK (Gatmiri, 1997). La vérification du modèle de l'interaction sol-végétation atmosphère a été faite par le biais d'une comparaison des résultats de calcul avec les données in situ disponibles sur le site de Mormoiron et les données météorologiques de la station Carpentras. Les calculs ont été ensuite étendus à des périodes particulièrement sèches et particulièrement humides. La modélisation d'une période plus longue de 20 ans a été également effectuée. Le modèle d'extraction par des racines a été vérifié sur quelques études de cas rapportés par Biddle (1998), en utilisant les données météorologiques de la station de Londres et en considérant l'effet de l'interaction sol-végétation-atmosphère sur la surface du sol. L'ensemble des résultats obtenus montre la pertinence de l'approche numérique adoptée. Cette étude de modélisation a été finalement complétée en considérant une fondation superficielle d'une maison. Les résultats ont montré clairement le rôle de la présence d'un arbre, ainsi que l'importance de sa distance de la maison sur les tassements du sol.

Les schémas de surface ont été développés dans le but de modéliser les échanges de chaleur et d'humidité entre les surfaces continentales et l'atmosphère. Parmi les éléments constitutifs de ces surfaces, la végétation joue un rôle important dans la dynamique des flux à l'interface. Mon travail de thèse a porté sur l'amélioration de la paramétrisation de la végétation dans le modèle de surface ISBA-A-gs (Calvet et al, 1998). Ce modèle est capable de résoudre les bilans énergétique et hydrique à la surface, de calculer la croissance de la biomasse verte de la végétation, et d'estimer sa surface foliaire en tenant compte des conditions météorologiques. Ce modèle intègre également l'effet de l'augmentation de CO2 atmosphérique dans le fonctionnement de la végétation. Mon travail a porté sur l'élaboration et l'application d'une paramétrisation de l'effet du déficit hydrique sur le fonctionnement des couverts de types ligneux. Pour cela, j'ai repris une méthodologie de type méta-analyse des données de la littérature déjà utilisée par Calvet (2000) dans le cadre des couverts de types herbacés. Un travail d'application et de validation a été mené sur 3 jeux de données continues du réseau de mesure EUROFLUX / CarboEurope correspondant à 3 sites forestiers Européens. Ces données comportent les flux du bilan d'énergie classique associés à la mesure du flux de CO2. J'ai pu de ce fait, tester pour la première fois la capacité du modèle à simuler le cycle diurne du flux de CO2 ainsi qu'à estimer le stockage annuel net de carbone sur ce type de couvert (Rivalland et al., 2005). Enfin, j'ai abordé les potentialités d'une nouvelle version du modèle développée par Calvet et Soussana (2001) dont la particularité est de prendre en compte l'effet de l'enrichissement en CO2 de l'atmosphère sur la croissance de la végétation, associé à la disponibilité du milieu en azote du sol. Cette version sépare les différents compartiments de stockage liés à la croissance de la végétation et ouvre des perspectives dans la modélisation complète du cycle du carbone et des effets du changement climatique sur la végétation. En lien avec ce travail, une méta-analyse ainsi qu'une expérimentation de terrain de fertilisation en azote a été menée dans le but de déterminer les paramètres de plasticité propres à cette version, pour différents types de couverts. Une évaluation des simulations du modèle sur une culture de blé a été menée en comparant avec le modèle de culture STICS de l'INRA.

Une connaissance approfondie de la variabilité spatiale du climat est essentielle en agronomie et agroforesterie, afin d'évaluer les capacités de production d'une région ou encore la pression phytosanitaire potentielle d'un ravageur. En viticulture, le climat conditionne largement la cinétique de développement de la vigne ainsi que la maturation du raisin. L'objectif de ce travail était de caractériser la variabilité spatiale du climat à méso-échelle en utilisant différentes techniques de spatialisation au pas de temps quotidien de variables climatiques et d'indices agroclimatiques, afin d'évaluer ses conséquences sur le développement de la vigne et sur la maturation du raisin. La région considérée est la Gironde viticole (aire de production des vins de Bordeaux). Six variables ont été étudiées : les températures minimales et maximales, le rayonnement global, l'évapotranspiration potentielle, les précipitations et le bilan hydrique. Pour chaque variable, la méthode de spatialisation fournissant les résultats les plus pertinents à des coûts informatique et temporel raisonnables a été sélectionnée. La propagation des erreurs produites par la spatialisation des variables climatiques au pas de temps quotidien dans les modèles agroclimatiques a ensuite été évaluée. Cette propagation est non négligeable dans le calcul des sommes de températures et des bilans hydriques. La cartographie des variables climatiques a permis de caractériser la variabilité spatiale du climat en Gironde viticole et de bien quantifier des différences entre aires d'appellation qui n'étaient connues que de manière très empirique. Les résultats de cette étude permettront de mieux adapter les techniques viticoles et le choix du matériel végétal aux possibilités offertes par le milieu.

Forested watersheds play a dominant role in the global hydrological cycle. Very few experimental observatories especially in tropical forested regions of India have been undertaken. This study has been initiated for this reason and to gain insights into functioning of the hydrological system in such climatic conditions. This study involves experimental setup of a watershed, it’s monitoring till date, modelling of the hydrological processes observed and the challenges in modelling components of the water balance in this watershed. A Small Experimental Watershed of 4.3 Km2 was set up at Mule Hole, in South India along the Kerala-Karnataka State borders, and is situated inside the Bandipur National park. After an overview of watershed studies, review of literature related to forest watershed studies and processes in the first two chapters, Chapter 3 introduces the study area, Mule Hole Experimental Watershed and explains the methodology used to study this watershed. Model SWAT was used initially to simulate the water balance components. A brief description of the model, methodology adopted and discussion on the results obtained is presented in Chapter 4. The watershed initially modelled as an ungauged watershed using the default parameters in the model, simulated very high groundwater contribution to the runoff. The calibrated model although performed favourably for annual average values and monthly calibration, the daily calibration was unsatisfactory. An auxiliary study on quantification of actual and potential evapotranspiration (ET0) has been carried out in Chapter 5 . Ten methods including Penman-Montieth were compared and evaluated for efficacy of the methods. All methods except for Hargreaves method showed agreement with the Penman-Montieth for annual average values. Priestly-Taylor method was found be the best estimator in comparison with Penman-Montieth method, when used to estimate AET. Adjusted Hargreaves and FAO Blaney -Criddle method were found to be very useful when few or limited climatic data were available for estimation of Potential evapotranspiration. A multidisciplinary approach of estimating recharge consisting of chloride mass balance technique coupled with study of water table fluctuations and groundwater flow analytical modelling has been attempted in Chapter 6. Direct and localized recharge was estimated at 45 mm/yr and indirect recharge 30 mm/yr for the monitored years in the watershed. The low values of recharge rates implied an unexpected very high evapotranspiration rate. It may be inferred that in the absence of groundwater flow to the stream, the recharge joins groundwater flow as outflow of the hydrologic system. An integrated lumped model incorporating the regolith zone and the capability of the tree roots to access this store is presented in Chapter 7. The model was able to simulate the pattern of lag-time between water table rise was observed in shallow piezometers in comparison with hillslope piezometers. The patterns of water table variation among the different hillslope piezometers suggest that they are linked with local processes and not by a regional aquifer dynamics. This study shows that water uptake, combined with the spatial variability of regolith depth, can account for the variable lag time between drainage events and groundwater rise observed for the different piezometers. Chapter 8 discusses the results, conclusions derived from this study and possibility of further scope of studies.

Die Verdunstung ist die Klimaanlage der Erde. Sie verbindet den globalen Wasserkreislauf mit dem Energiekreislauf. Die Komponenten des Wasser- und Energiekreislaufs stehen für jeden Standort in einem dynamischen Gleichgewicht. Mit der Ausführung von Bauvorhaben wird in das Gleichgewicht eingegriffen. Entscheidend für die Beurteilung der Folgen für die Umwelt sind die langfristigen Auswirkungen. Diese können durch den Vergleich langjähriger mittlerer Jahresbilanzen vor und nach der Bebauung aufgezeigt werden. Bei der Genehmigung neuer Baugebiete müssen diese Auswirkungen ein Entscheidungskriterium werden, wenn der Eingriff in den Naturhaushalt so gering wie möglich gehalten werden soll. Nur die Betrachtung von einzelnen Starkregenereignissen ist nicht ausreichen. Von der Versiegelung der Oberflächen ist die Verdunstung in der Jahresbilanz stärker als die anderen Komponenten des Wasserkreislaufs betroffen. Trotzdem werden bisher bei der Planung neuer Baugebiete hauptsächlich der Oberflächenabfluss und in zunehmendem Maße die Versickerung untersucht. Die Reduzierung der Verdunstung wird zumeist vernachlässigt. Ursache für diese Reduzierung ist die fehlende Zwischenspeicherung des Wassers. Das wirkt sich direkt auf den Energiekreislauf aus, da die nicht für den Verdunstungsprozess benötigte Energie in den bodennahen Schichten bleibt. Im ersten Teil werden die Einflussfaktoren auf die Verdunstung erläutert und ein Überblick über die Berechnungsmethoden gegeben. Im zweiten Teil werden die Oberflächen unbebauter und bebauter Gebiete systematisiert und in Landnutzungsarten unterteilt. Für diese werden die hydrologischen und energetischen Eigenschaften und deren Auswirkungen auf den Wasser- und Energiehaushalt erläutert und die mittleren Jahresbilanzen berechnet. Die tatsächliche Verdunstung wird auf der Basis der Gras-Referenzverdunstung und der Landnutzungsart ermittelt. Ausgangswerte sind langjährige meteorologische Jahresmittelwerte. Die Verdunstung von Wasserflächen wird mit dem Temperaturgleichgewichtsverfahren berechnet. Mit den vorgestellten Verfahren können Einzugsgebiete von Bebauungsplangröße untersucht werden. Es werden Lösungen zur Beibehaltung eines möglichst hohen Verdunstungsanteils in bebauten Gebieten vorgeschlagen. Ansatzpunkt ist dabei stets die Zwi-schenspeicherung des Regenwassers. Am wirkungsvollsten sind dabei Dachbegrünungen, Wasserflächen und Bäume. Das Verfahren wird an zwei Beispielen angewandt - die Erschließung eines Industriegebietes auf einer vorher land- und forstwirtschaftlich genutzten Fläche in Treuen im Vogtland und der Neubau einer Untergrundstation im Zentrum der schwedischen Großstadt Malmö. / Evapotranspiration could be called the air-conditioner of the earth. It is connecting the water and the energy cycle. The components of the water and energy cycle are related to each other in a dynamic system. Urban development is interfering with this system. Changes of the water and energy balance resulting from construction can be calculated on the basis of long-standing annual average balances and compared with the balance in the catchment area before construction. Before granting building permission, the impacts on the water and energy balance should be evaluated in order to minimize interference with nature. Causing long-term impacts must be considered beforehand in planning. Coping only with design storm events does not suffice. Evaporation is more intensely affected by the paving of streets and squares and by constructing buildings then the other components of the water cycle. However, up to now, in the process of design and planning permission of new development areas, the focus is on runoff and, increasingly, on infiltration of rainwater. The large reduction of evaporation is mostly neglected. The reason for the reduction is the lack of buffer storage for water. Thus directly affects the energy cycle. Energy which is not used for evaporation remains in the near-ground layers. In the first part, the factors influencing evaporation are explained and an overview over the methods of calculation is given. In the second part all surfaces of urban and natural areas are systematized and subdivided into types of land use. The hydrological and energy properties as well as their effects on the water and energy balance are elucidated for this types of land use and their average annual balances are calculated. Solutions are presented for retaining in urban areas an evaporation rate as high as possible. Starting point hereby is always the buffer storage of rainwater. Most effective measures are the installation of rooftop greening, open water surfaces and trees. The calculations are performed on the basis of the FAO reference evaporation and the types of land use. Starting values are long-stand average annual meteorologic values. The evaporation of water surfaces is calculated with the temperature balance model. The method is applied to two examples showing the impacts of land use change on water and energy balance: the development of agricultural and forest land in Saxony into an industrial development site, and the impact of the construction of an underground station in the centre of the City Malmö, Sweden.

Ph.d.-afhandling. Københavns Universitet, 2002. / Haves også i trykt udg.