Nicotine is one of the most addictive drugs known to man, yet it has limited reinforcing effects in humans and non-human animals when it is not self-administered in tobacco products. One hypothesis for these paradoxical effects of nicotine is that the effects of the drug in the brain alter acquisition of incentive learning. The hypothesis for this study is that nicotine will increase the value of cues paired with a reward. To test this hypothesis, 26 Sprague Dawley Male rats were randomly assigned to one of three groups Pre-NIC (the critical experimental group), Post-NIC and SAL. Each group received a subcutaneous injection 15 min prior to testing and another injection 1-3 h after testing. For the Pre-NIC group, nicotine (0.4 mg/kg base) was injected 15 min before test sessions; placebo was administered after testing. For the Post-NIC group the order of injections was reversed, and this manipulation controls for total exposure to nicotine. The SAL groups received placebo injections before and after testing. Rats were shaped to respond for 10% sucrose for pressing an illuminated nose-key (Experiment 1) or 0.2% saccharin for pressing a lever (Experiment 2). Responding in the Pre-NIC group was higher than all other groups in Experiment 2 (saccharin reward); however, responding in the three groups was similar in Experiment 1 (sucrose reward). This paradigm highlights how nicotine can increase motivation for rewards, but that the facility of operant behaviors and caloric value of the reward may mask this effect.

Dangerous driving behaviors are influenced by multiple factors including cognitive processes such as impulse inhibition and attentiveness. Impulsiveness, inattention, and cognitive failures have been linked to other risky behaviors, but a comprehensive evaluation using multiple methods of measurement of these has never been conducted to analyze their impact on dangerous driving. The purpose of this study was to examine influences of attentional abilities, impulsiveness, and cognitive failures on reported and demonstrated dangerous driving behaviors. Seventy-five participants completed a self-report dangerous driving measure, a self-report ADHD measure, a self-report impulsiveness measure, a continuous performance task to measure behavioral impulsivity and inattention, a measure of cognitive failures, and a driving simulator task. Two hierarchical linear regressions with simultaneous entry into blocks were used to analyze contributions of impulsiveness, inattention, and cognitive failures assessments in predicting dangerous driving behavior. Results indicated these assessments accounted for a significant proportion of the variance in Dula Dangerous Driving Index (3DI) scores above and beyond the effects of age and sex, Adjusted R▓ = .20, F(6, 59) = 2.51, p < .05, but no significant individual predictors emerged. Scores on these measures were also found to account for a significant amount of the variance in risky driving as measured by the driving simulator, above and beyond the effects of age and sex, Adjusted R▓ = .15, F(6, 60) = 2.91, p < .05, and identified BIS-11 scores and ADHD-RS impulsiveness scores as significant individual predictors. It seems that despite multiple methods of assessment, it is still difficult to capture the assumed relationships between each of these factors and driving. Though each assessment measures different aspects of constructs related to dangerous driving, the lack of relationships and predictive abilities may indicate that impulsiveness, inattention, cognitive failures, and dangerous driving may be more complex and multifaceted than previously understood.

Pick-up lines are a "ritual that tries to turn strangers into lovers" (Murray, 1985, p.17). By studying how pick-up lines are perceived by the population, we might learn how the phenomenon of short- or long-term mating is initiated. By taking into account mating strategies, mate value, attractiveness, and flirting strategies, a pattern of behaviors and reactions may be observed. This study examines perceived pick-up line appropriateness and effectiveness when the attractiveness of the man delivering them varies. To test the effectiveness of 2 different types of pick-up lines, an online survey featuring 1 of 4 videos was administered. Results indicated that a humorous pick-up line was perceived as more effective and favorable than a slightly insulting one. An attractive man was perceived to be more communicatively competent than an unattractive man. Men, regardless of attractiveness, were perceived as more socially attractive when using a humorous pick-up line.

Self-control has been defined as the ability to override or alter an automatic response. Past research has suggested that those who are higher in the personality trait neuroticism display poorer self-control. Based on theory suggesting that self-control is a limited resource, the present study attempts to explain the relationship between neuroticism and self-control. Understanding that neuroticism is characterized by emotional instability, it follows that individuals high in neuroticism must exert more self-control in managing their negative moods, thus leaving them depleted for future acts of self-control. Participants (n = 84) completed measures of trait self-control, engaged in an emotional regulation task, and then completed measures of state self-control, affect, and rumination. Results revealed no significant effect of emotional regulation on state self-control, nor a significant effect of neuroticism on state self-control. The implications of these findings are discussed.

In an experiment which investigated the effects of stress on the Protestant Ethic Effect (PEE) 12 Wistar rats were trained for 20 days to barpress for their total water intake. Following training the rats were divided into two groups and were allowed to choose between barpressing for a 10% sucrose solution and consuming a freely available sucrose solution under either stress or nonstress conditions. Stress was defined as a .01 cc per 36g body weight injection of norepinephrine. The stress and nonstress conditions were counterbalanced during the choice session. Regardless of stress order both groups preferred the free over the earned solution. The preference for the free reinforce is discussed in terms of strain of rat used in the experiment as well as the physiological effects of norepinephrine.

Forty-five male and female family caregivers of institutionalized and noninstitutionalized Alzheimer’s Disease patients were assessed for depression, using the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS). Internal consistency and concurrent validity for the BDI and GDS were acceptable, based on item-total correlation, coefficient alphas, and a Pearson’s Product-moment correlation. A stepwise multiple regression analysis was carried out to determine which variables predict depression in Alzheimer’s caregivers. Using the traditional cut-off score of 11 for each scale, it was found that 42% were depressed on the BDI, while 58% were depressed on the GDS; these rates were not significantly different. No difference in depression rate was found between male and female caregivers or between spouse and adult daughter caregivers. However, the depression rate for the caregiver sample was significantly higher than that reported for the general population of older adults. The regression analysis showed that only two variables were predictive of depression in this group of Alzheimer’s caregiver. The less frequently the caregiver spent time away from the patient, the less frequently the caregiver had help in caring for the patient, the more likely the caregiver was to be depressed. It is suggested that social support may be an important factor in the prevention and/or alleviation of depression in family caregivers of patients with Alzheimer’s Disease. Future research is suggested including validation of the BDI and GDS for Alzheimer’s caregivers, using a large representative sample.

The purpose of this experiment was to determine if stress, induced by intraperitoneal (IP) injections of epinephrine, influenced rats' preference to freeload (drink sucrose solution from a drinking tube) or to work for a liquid reinforcer (obtain sucrose solution by barpressing). Furthermore, the order in which stress was introduced was investigated. Following two weeks of water deprivation, 6 female and 6 male Hooded rats approximately 90 days old were divided into two experimental groups. The first group (S-N) was stressed the first and second experimental testing days in which a choice was presented between barpressing and freeloading for a 10% sucrose solution. The choice was presented the third and fourth testing days in the absence of stress. The second group (N-S) was given the choice of barpressing or freeloading the first and second experimental testing days in the absence of stress, and was presented with the same choice the third and fourth days in the presence of stress. Two dependent variables were measured: the ratio of the amount of solution earned by barpressing to the total amount of solution consumed and the amount of solution earned by barpressing. The results of the study indicated that rats in the stress condition preferred to freeload. Furthermore, the order in which the stress was introduced affected work versus freeloading preference. When permitted to make the initial choice between barpressing or freeloading in the absence of stress, all rats chose to barpress. When the stress was subsequently introduced on the third experimental testing day, all rats preferred to freeload. Results of the (S-N) group were not as significantly conclusive because of the large variance of choice in both the stress and nonstress conditions.

Feedback and goal setting are both necessary for either to have an effect on performance (Erez, 1977). In the present study two attributes of feedback, frequency and source, were manipulated under goal-setting conditions to examine their effects on performance. It is generally assumed that performance can be enhanced by providing individuals with frequent feedback and by providing them with feedback that originates from a source close to themselves--that is, feedback from the task itself or self-administered feedback. A third variable of interest, subjects' perceived control over the task, was assessed via questionnaires. Subjects worked on a problem-solving task. Each subject was placed in one of eight feedback source/frequency conditions and assigned a goal for the task based on his/her performance in a practice trial. Questionnaires designed to assess subject's perceptions of the assigned goal, the feedback provided, and the task itself were administered at predetermined intervals. Neither the source from which the feedback originated nor the frequency with which it was presented had an effect on performance. However, a source by frequency interaction was obtained from questionnaire data measuring subject's perceptions of control over the task. Individuals perceiving themselves as receiving infrequent feedback felt greater control when the feedback was presented by the researcher. Individuals who perceived themselves as receiving more frequent feedback felt greater control when the feedback was self-administered. Theoretical explanations of the findings were offered along with recommendations for future research. Recommendations included the further examination of the role of feedback on individual perceptions of external control and its influence on task performance.

This research compares the performance of a group of extraverts to a group of intraverts on a cognitive reasoning task. According to the theory of Hans J. Eysenck, one would expect that the intraverts would perform better than the extraverts on a task of massed reasoning. On the basis of scores on the Eysenck Personality Inventory and the Otis Lennon Mental Ability Test, a sample of 72 Ss were drawn from two undergraduate classes, Principles of Applied Learning and Human Development, at Western Kentucky University. Only Ss with extreme scores on the Extraversion scale E were selected, with each extravert and intravert being matched according to I.Q. Those Ss with high Neuroticism scores (N) were eliminated. After selection, the Ss were administered an abstract reasoning test. A comparison of the performance of the two groups revealed no significant differences.

Previous research has demonstrated that self-affirmation via values affirmations seem to buffer the self against perceived threats (Steele, 1988). An example of such a threat is opposing worldviews regarding civil liberties in counterterrorism policies. The present study uses the threat of worldview opposition in regards to counterterrorism policies in conjunction with an experimental induction of mortality salience to explore whether self-affirmation can attenuate increases in worldview defense following mortality salience. It was hypothesized that mortality salience would increase worldview defense, but that self-affirmation would decrease worldview defense following exposure to a worldview threat. When extremity of attitudes toward civil liberties in counterterrorism policies were considered in analyses, results indicated an interaction of self-affirmation and mortality salience, such that self-affirmation decreased worldview defense in participants in the mortality salience condition if they expressed extreme civil liberty attitudes. Results suggest that self-affirmation and mortality salience interact to predict worldview defense in those who care about civil liberties in counterterrorism policies. This study provides qualified theoretical support for self-affirmation theory (Steele, 1988). More research on the topic of self-affirmation and civil liberty attitudes is needed.