Este projeto teve por objetivo investigar se existem diferenças nos julgamentos de atratividade de faces masculinizadas e feminilizadas entre mulheres durante a etapa folicular tardia e na etapa luteal (fases do ciclo menstrual) e se estas se correlacionam às alterações dos níveis hormonais. Foram incluídas 30 mulheres voluntárias, na faixa etária de 18 a 42 anos com ciclos menstruais regulares, com duração entre 24 e 33 dias, sem uso de anticoncepcional hormonal (AH). Foram utilizados para a avaliação da atratividade facial dois protótipos faciais: um de uma face feminina e outro de face masculina. De cada um desses protótipos foram confeccionadas mais quatro faces, cujos traços de duas foram masculinizados e das outras duas foram feminilizados em diferentes graus. Foram realizadas duas sessões experimentais para cada participante. A primeira sessão foi na etapa folicular tardia do ciclo menstrual e a segunda na etapa luteal do ciclo. Em cada sessão, a participante era instruída a ordenar decrescentemente as faces conforme o quão atraente cada uma lhe parecerá. Em seguida a participante classificava as faces em três grupos: Amigo, Inimigo e Amante. Posteriormente foi colhida a amostra de sangue para posteriores análises dos níveis hormonais. Ou seja, tanto na etapa folicular tardia quanto na luteal, as participantes avaliaram as imagens das faces e doaram uma amostra de sangue. As frequências foram comparadas e verificou-se que para as faces masculinas masculinizadas e a face neutra foram consideradas as mais atraentes na fase folicular tardia e na fase lútea. Na fase folicular tardia, para as faces masculinas, quanto mais masculinizadas elas forem, maior sua pontuação no grupo Amante. Na fase lútea, a face original masculina e todas as faces masculinas masculinizadas foram mais frequentemente classificadas ao grupo Amante, mas a face 50% masculinizada teve um aumento na qualificação de Inimigo. E finalmente, não foi verificada uma correlação entre os níveis hormonais e a preferência por faces mais masculinizadas ou feminilizada. Não foi evidenciada uma mudança significativa na preferência do julgamento das faces; observando-se que existe sempre uma preferência por faces mais masculinizadas para faces masculinas, e preferência por faces mais feminilizadas para faces femininas, independente das fases do ciclo menstrual. / This project aimed to investigate whether there are differences in attractiveness judgments of masculinized and feminized faces by women during the late follicular and the luteal phases (phases of the menstrual cycle) and whether these judgments correlate with hormonal level changes. Thirty women with age between 18 and 42 years old, with regular menstrual cycles lasting between 24 and 33 days, and without use of hormonal contraceptive (AH) were volunteers in this study. Stimuli were images of a female and a male prototypical faces that by computer morphing technique generated other faces with exaggeration of the gender traits by 25% and 50%. Two experimental sessions, the first in the late follicular phase and the second in the luteal phase, were conducted for each participant to judge the attractiveness of the faces, sorting them from the highest to lowest attractive. Finishing this task, the participant classified the faces into three groups: \"Friend\", \"Enemy\" or \"Lover.\" After each session in both menstrual phases blood sample of the participant was collected for further hormone level analysis. The masculinized male face and the original male face were chosen as more attractive in the follicular phase and the late luteal phase. Besides, in the late follicular phase, the more masculinized are the male faces, the higher is their score into the \"Lover\" group. In the luteal phase, also all masculinized and the original male faces were classified more frequently into the Lover group, but also the 50% masculinized male face was more frequently classified into the Enemy group. And finally, there was no correlation between hormone levels and preference for more masculinized or more feminized faces. Then, there is no evidence that hormonal levels change the face preferences. There was always a preference for masculinized faces to male faces, and preference for feminized faces for female faces, regardless of the menstrual cycle phases.

A simetria facial foi investigada como fator de atratividade em quatro experimentos. Fotos frontais em preto e branco de faces de homens e mulheres foram manipuladas por computação gráfica para gerar faces simétricas. No Exp. I as faces simétricas foram geradas a partir da reflexão das metades laterais, direita e esquerda, de cada face. Essas faces simétricas e suas respectivas faces naturais foram apresentadas a sujeitos para julgar o quão atrativa elas eram. Os resultados mostraram que faces assimétricas (naturais) foram julgadas como mais atrativas que as simétricas. No Exp. II utilizaram-se as mesmas faces simétricas e naturais do Exp. I, porém, excluindo-se os elementos externos da face por meio de uma moldura elíptica. Essas faces foram apresentadas aos pares e pediu-se para os participantes escolher a mais atrativa, além de julgar seu grau de atratividade. Os resultados mostraram que nenhuma foto simétrica foi julgada como mais atrativa que sua respectiva face natural, bem como as faces naturais foram mais escolhidas que as simétricas. A exclusão dos elementos externos das faces não contribuiu para aumentar o grau de atratividade das mesmas. No Exp. III as faces simétricas foram geradas por técnica de morphing a partir da imagem da face original e a sua respectiva imagem refletida. A apresentação e julgamentos das faces seguiram o modelo do Exp. II. Os resultados mostraram que nenhuma face simétrica obteve escore de atratividade maior que as naturais, mas com relação às escolhas, para faces masculinas houve maior número de escolhas para as faces simétricas. No Exp. IV foram utilizadas as mesmas faces simétricas e naturais do Exp. III, excluindo-se os elementos faciais externos. Os resultados indicaram maior escores de atratividade, bem como um maior número de escolhas das faces simétricas. Comparadas ao Exp. III houve um aumento nos escores de atratividade para as faces simétricas e uma diminuição dos escores para as faces naturais. Conclui-se que a simetria não deve ser considerada como um fator isolado na análise da atratividade facial; relações entre outros elementos podem contribuir para tornar uma face mais atrativa. / The facial symmetry was investigated as attractiveness factor in four experiments. Front pictures in black and white of men\'s and women?s faces were manipulated by graphic computation to create symmetrical faces. In Exp. I, the symmetrical faces were created starting from the lateral half right and left reflection, of each face. Those symmetrical faces and their respective natural faces were presented to people that had to judge how attractive they were. The results showed that asymmetrical faces (natural) were judged as more attractive than the symmetrical ones. In Exp. II, we used the same symmetrical and natural faces of Exp. I, however, being excluded face?s external elements through an elliptic frame. These faces were presented in pairs and we asked for the participants to choose the most attractive, besides judging the attractiveness degree. The results showed that no symmetrical picture was judged as more attractive than its respective natural face, as well as the natural faces were more chosen than the symmetrical ones. The exclusion of the external elements of the faces didn\'t contribute to increase the attractiveness degree of themselves. In Exp. III, the symmetrical faces were created by morphing technique starting from the original face image and its respective reflected image. The presentation and judgments of the faces followed the model of Exp. II. The results showed that no symmetrical face obtained score of larger attractiveness than the natural ones, but regarding the choices, for masculine faces there was larger number of choices for the symmetrical faces. In Exp. IV we used the same symmetrical and natural faces of Exp. III, being excluded the external facial elements. The results indicated larger attractiveness scores, as well as a larger number of choices fore the symmetrical faces. Comparing Exp. IV with Exp. III, we had an increase in the attractiveness scores for the symmetrical faces and a decrease of the scores for the natural faces. We concluded that the symmetry should not be considered as an isolated factor in the facial attractiveness analysis; the relationships among other elements can contribute to turn a more attractive face.

京都大学 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(情報学) / 甲第23398号 / 情博第767号 / 新制||情||131(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院情報学研究科知能情報学専攻 / (主査)教授 熊田 孝恒, 教授 西田 眞也, 教授 齋木 潤, 准教授 延原 章平 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Informatics / Kyoto University / DFAM

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The goal of this study was to determine if a relationship exists between pretreatment facial attractiveness and posttreatment occlusal outcome in orthodontic patients. A randomized sample of forty-seven patients (26 males, 21 females) was selected for inclusion in this study. Orthodontic evaluators rated pretreatment patient photographs (frontal smile, frontal, profile) using a 100 mm visual analog scale (VAS). Occlusal outomes were evaluated using percentage reduction in weighted Peer Assessment Rating (PAR) index scores and the American Board of Orthodontics objective grading system (ABO-OGS). Spearman correlation coefficients were calculated to assess the relationship between pretreatment VAS attractiveness ratings and posttreatment occlusal scores. There was a fair correlation between facial attractiveness and reduction in weighted PAR index scores for all patients (r=.41, p<.01) and for male patients (r=.48, p<.05). The results showed a good correlation between facial attractiveness and the ABO-OGS for females (r=-.55, p<.05).

A visibilidade da etapa fértil na mulher é uma questão polêmica e tem sido muito discutida nas últimas décadas. Alguns autores argumentam que no transcorrer da evolução a ovulação ficou oculta. Em paralelo, outros pesquisadores afirmam que a ovulação na mulher não se manifesta de forma tão visível como em alguns primatas que apresentam sinais muito notórios da ovulação, por exemplo, a tumefação vaginal. Mas diversas pesquisas têm fornecido evidência que mostram que o período fértil na mulher é perceptível de maneira sutil, sem que se tenha consciência do processo perceptual envolvido. Os achados destas pesquisas apontam para o fato de diversas características (como a face, a proporção cintura quadril, a simetria de tecidos brandos pareados e o cheiro) serem percebidas como mais atraentes na etapa fértil. O presente estudo teve por objetivo investigar se em alguma etapa (folicular tardia ou lútea) do ciclo menstrual a face da mulher se torna mais atraente para o sexo oposto devido a mudanças morfológicas induzidas pelos níveis hormonais. Foram apresentados, apenas para participantes masculinos, 36 slides com fotografias de faces frontais de mulheres em idade reprodutiva. Em cada slide foram mostradas simultaneamente duas fotos da mesma mulher, uma das fotos obtida na Fase Folicular Tardia (FFT) do ciclo e a outra obtida na Fase Lútea (FL). Os participantes escolheram a face mais atraente e posteriormente avaliaram o grau de atratividade mediante uma escala analógica visual (VAS), cujo extremo esquerdo e direito da escala foram rotulados respectivamente por: nem um pouco atraente e muito atraente. Os resultados mostraram que a atratividade facial feminina muda em função da etapa do ciclo menstrual. As faces das mulheres que não tomavam anticoncepcionais foram julgadas como mais atraentes na etapa fértil do que na etapa infértil do ciclo. E o julgamento de atratividade feito para as faces das mulheres que tomavam anticoncepcionais não diferiram significativamente entre a FFT e a FL. Os resultados obtidos nesta pesquisa e nos estudos realizados previamente proporcionam evidências que demonstram que o período fértil nos humanos não está oculto, pois ocorrem mudanças na face que são detectáveis, mesmo quando o processo de percepção não é ciente. / Visibility of fertile period in women is a controversial topic that has been broadly discussed during the last decades. Some authors argue that ovulation became hidden in the course of evolution. In contrast, some other researchers state that ovulation in woman is not manifested as visibly as in other primates, which present very evident signals of ovulation like, e.g., vaginal tumefaction. However, several studies have provided evidence showing that fertile period in women is perceptible in a subtle way, without being aware of the perceptual process involved. Findings of those works points to the fact that some characteristics such as face, waist hip ratio, paired soft tissues symmetry and smell are perceived as more attractive in the fertile stage. The present work aimed to find out whether in any stage (late follicular or luteal) of menstrual cycle woman face appears more attractive to opposite sex, due to morphological changes induced by hormonal levels. 36 slides with frontal face photographs of woman in reproductive age were shown to male participants. In each slide two pictures of the same woman, one obtained in the late follicular phase and the other obtained in the luteal phase were exposed. Participants chose the more attractive picture and then they assessed the attractiveness through a visual analogical scale (VAS), in whose left and right extremes the legends not attractive at all and very attractive were marked, respectively. Results showed that female facial attractiveness changes as a function of the menstrual cycle stage. Faces of women who did not take contraceptives did not differ significantly between FFT and FL. The results obtained in this research and previous studies provide evidence to demonstrate that the fertile period in humans is not hidden, because on the face occur changes that are detectable even when the process of perception is not aware of.

A visibilidade da etapa fértil na mulher é uma questão polêmica e tem sido muito discutida nas últimas décadas. Alguns autores argumentam que no transcorrer da evolução a ovulação ficou oculta. Em paralelo, outros pesquisadores afirmam que a ovulação na mulher não se manifesta de forma tão visível como em alguns primatas que apresentam sinais muito notórios da ovulação, por exemplo, a tumefação vaginal. Mas diversas pesquisas têm fornecido evidência que mostram que o período fértil na mulher é perceptível de maneira sutil, sem que se tenha consciência do processo perceptual envolvido. Os achados destas pesquisas apontam para o fato de diversas características (como a face, a proporção cintura quadril, a simetria de tecidos brandos pareados e o cheiro) serem percebidas como mais atraentes na etapa fértil. O presente estudo teve por objetivo investigar se em alguma etapa (folicular tardia ou lútea) do ciclo menstrual a face da mulher se torna mais atraente para o sexo oposto devido a mudanças morfológicas induzidas pelos níveis hormonais. Foram apresentados, apenas para participantes masculinos, 36 slides com fotografias de faces frontais de mulheres em idade reprodutiva. Em cada slide foram mostradas simultaneamente duas fotos da mesma mulher, uma das fotos obtida na Fase Folicular Tardia (FFT) do ciclo e a outra obtida na Fase Lútea (FL). Os participantes escolheram a face mais atraente e posteriormente avaliaram o grau de atratividade mediante uma escala analógica visual (VAS), cujo extremo esquerdo e direito da escala foram rotulados respectivamente por: nem um pouco atraente e muito atraente. Os resultados mostraram que a atratividade facial feminina muda em função da etapa do ciclo menstrual. As faces das mulheres que não tomavam anticoncepcionais foram julgadas como mais atraentes na etapa fértil do que na etapa infértil do ciclo. E o julgamento de atratividade feito para as faces das mulheres que tomavam anticoncepcionais não diferiram significativamente entre a FFT e a FL. Os resultados obtidos nesta pesquisa e nos estudos realizados previamente proporcionam evidências que demonstram que o período fértil nos humanos não está oculto, pois ocorrem mudanças na face que são detectáveis, mesmo quando o processo de percepção não é ciente. / Visibility of fertile period in women is a controversial topic that has been broadly discussed during the last decades. Some authors argue that ovulation became hidden in the course of evolution. In contrast, some other researchers state that ovulation in woman is not manifested as visibly as in other primates, which present very evident signals of ovulation like, e.g., vaginal tumefaction. However, several studies have provided evidence showing that fertile period in women is perceptible in a subtle way, without being aware of the perceptual process involved. Findings of those works points to the fact that some characteristics such as face, waist hip ratio, paired soft tissues symmetry and smell are perceived as more attractive in the fertile stage. The present work aimed to find out whether in any stage (late follicular or luteal) of menstrual cycle woman face appears more attractive to opposite sex, due to morphological changes induced by hormonal levels. 36 slides with frontal face photographs of woman in reproductive age were shown to male participants. In each slide two pictures of the same woman, one obtained in the late follicular phase and the other obtained in the luteal phase were exposed. Participants chose the more attractive picture and then they assessed the attractiveness through a visual analogical scale (VAS), in whose left and right extremes the legends not attractive at all and very attractive were marked, respectively. Results showed that female facial attractiveness changes as a function of the menstrual cycle stage. Faces of women who did not take contraceptives did not differ significantly between FFT and FL. The results obtained in this research and previous studies provide evidence to demonstrate that the fertile period in humans is not hidden, because on the face occur changes that are detectable even when the process of perception is not aware of.

Dans ce travail de thèse, nous avons confronté l’explication du fitness model à celle du stéréotype beautiful is good, afin de mieux saisir l’influence de l’attractivité faciale d’un homme sur les préférences d’une femme. Selon le fitness model, une femme interprèterait l’attractivité faciale d’un homme comme l’indice de sa bonne santé (bonne condition génétique), profitable à la survie et au succès reproducteur de la progéniture. Mais selon des travaux en lien avec l’aisance cognitive (prototype, stéréotype beautiful is good), les traits attractifs et l’attention qu’une femme manifeste pour l’attractivité faciale d’un homme n’auraient pas de valeur reproductive, et s’expliqueraient plutôt en termes de facilité de traitement et d’économie cognitive, qui génèrent des réactions positives. Nous avons eu recours à un logiciel de ‘morphing’ afin de créer des visages artificiels d’hommes dont le genre, la correspondance à une moyenne et la symétrie variaient, et les avons fait évaluer par des femmes françaises et marocaines sur différents points : attractivité faciale, santé, revenus, rencontre, partenaire sur le long terme. Les résultats mettent en évidence que l’influence de l’attractivité faciale sur les préférences des femmes n’aurait pas seulement une valeur reproductive, et que l’économie cognitive permise par le recours au stéréotype beautiful is good expliquerait aussi les préférences. / In this work of thesis, we compared the fitness model explanation with the beautiful is good stereotype point of view to better evaluate the influence of men’s facial attractiveness on women preferences. According to the fitness model, a woman would interpret men’s facial attractiveness as an indicator of their good health (good genetic condition), profitable for the offspring’s survival and reproductive success. But according to studies in the field of cognitive ease (prototype, beautiful is good stereotype), the attractive facial features and the attention that a woman pay to men’s facial attractiveness is explained in terms of easy processing and cognitive economy, which generate positive reactions and would have no reproductive value. We used a software of morphing to create artificial men’s faces among which the masculine vs feminine, the averageness and the symmetry were manipulated. After, we submitted these faces to the evaluation of french and moroccan women on several aspects : facial attractiveness, health, income, meeting, long-term mate. The results suggest that facial attractiveness’s influence on women’s preferences would not only have a reproductive value, and that the cognitive economy allowed by the beautiful is good stereotype would also explain the preferences.

[Truncated abstract] The assumption that facial attractiveness signals mate quality is central to current evolutionary theories of human sexual selection. Evidence for direct links between attractiveness and mate quality is, however, scarce, and the exact nature of mate quality remains the subject of debate. Mate quality may include genetic diversity, because genome-wide diversity has been linked to individual fitness, and diversity within the Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) has been associated with immunocompetence and health in many species. This thesis investigates whether individual genetic diversity plays a role in human sexual selection. The main aim is to examine whether MHC diversity, compared to genetic diversity in general, is especially important for mate preferences, health and mating success. The four studies herein are based on data collected from a large sample of heterosexual, Caucasian males and females. Participants were photographed, provided a DNA sample, and completed questionnaires regarding sexual history and health. Genetic diversity was calculated as both mean heterozygosity (H) and standardised mean-d2 (d2), separately for 12 MHC microsatellite loci and 11 nonMHC loci. The photographs were rated for various attractive features by opposite-sex raters. The first study investigated whether MHC diversity influences preferences for facial appearance in a potential mate, and if so, are they specific to the MHC and are they mediated by specific facial characteristics? I found that MHC-H, but not nonMHCH, positively predicted male facial attractiveness, and that this relationship was mediated by facial averageness. For females, nonMHC-d2 predicted facial symmetry, and potentially attractiveness. These findings indicate that faces contain visual cues to mate quality in both males and females, providing support for evolutionary theories that our preferences are adaptations for identifying mates of high quality. ... Measuring them both allowed me to tease apart their effects on mate preferences, and on health and mating success. Indeed, the MHC appears to be especially important in sexual selection as MHC diversity predicted female mate preferences after controlling for nonMHC diversity, and MHC dissimilarity predicted male mate preferences after controlling for nonMHC dissimilarity. Moreover, although MHC diversity did not appear to influence males’ preference for females, it did predict female mating success, suggesting that males also attend to MHC-related cues, although perhaps non-facial cues, when seeking mates. Additionally, nonMHC diversity predicted both male preferences for female faces and health, suggesting that such preferences are adaptive. Importantly, by providing direct links between facial attractiveness and biological markers of individual quality, genetic diversity, these results support the commonly held assumption that facial attractiveness signals mate quality.

Previous studies have shown that physical attractiveness is one of important aspects in mate choice. Facial traits perceived as attractive may be linked to potential mate quality, or more precisely to their reproductive potential, health and ability to invest in his mate and offspring. Mating with individuals with more reactive immune system could lead to higher reproductive success and thus it is possible that visual cues facilitating detection of such traits may have evolved. The main aim of the present thesis was to test a possible association between the reactivity of the immune system response to foreign antigens (stimulated by vaccination) and facial attractiveness perceived by opposite sex individuals. Further, we investigated visual changes occurring during immune system activation. We did not find any association between measures of reactivity of immune system and perceived facial attractiveness. However, participants with activated immune system were rated as significantly less attractive and were significantly paler. Overall, our results suggest that people are sensitive to visual cues to current health status but not to overall quality of the individual. Key Words Facial attractiveness, mate choice, sexual selection; heterozygosity; symmetry; immune system, antigen; disease-avoidance,...