abstract: Although the issue of factorial invariance has received increasing attention in the literature, the focus is typically on differences in factor structure across groups that are directly observed, such as those denoted by sex or ethnicity. While establishing factorial invariance across observed groups is a requisite step in making meaningful cross-group comparisons, failure to attend to possible sources of latent class heterogeneity in the form of class-based differences in factor structure has the potential to compromise conclusions with respect to observed groups and may result in misguided attempts at instrument development and theory refinement. The present studies examined the sensitivity of two widely used confirmatory factor analytic model fit indices, the chi-square test of model fit and RMSEA, to latent class differences in factor structure. Two primary questions were addressed. The first of these concerned the impact of latent class differences in factor loadings with respect to model fit in a single sample reflecting a mixture of classes. The second question concerned the impact of latent class differences in configural structure on tests of factorial invariance across observed groups. The results suggest that both indices are highly insensitive to class-based differences in factor loadings. Across sample size conditions, models with medium (0.2) sized loading differences were rejected by the chi-square test of model fit at rates just slightly higher than the nominal .05 rate of rejection that would be expected under a true null hypothesis. While rates of rejection increased somewhat when the magnitude of loading difference increased, even the largest sample size with equal class representation and the most extreme violations of loading invariance only had rejection rates of approximately 60%. RMSEA was also insensitive to class-based differences in factor loadings, with mean values across conditions suggesting a degree of fit that would generally be regarded as exceptionally good in practice. In contrast, both indices were sensitive to class-based differences in configural structure in the context of a multiple group analysis in which each observed group was a mixture of classes. However, preliminary evidence suggests that this sensitivity may contingent on the form of the cross-group model misspecification. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Psychology 2011

abstract: The Native American population is severely underrepresented in empirical test validity research despite being overrepresented in special education programs and at an increased risk for special educational evaluation. This study is the first to investigate the structural validity of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children - Fourth Edition (WISC-IV) with a Native American sample. The structural validity of the WISC-IV was investigated using the core subtest scores of 176, six-to-sixteen-year-old Native American children referred for a psychoeducational evaluation. The exploratory factor analysis procedures reported in the WISC-IV technical manual were replicated with the current sample. Congruence coefficients were used to measure the similarity between the derived factor structure and the normative factor structure. The Schmid-Leiman orthogonalization procedure was used to study the role of the higher-order general ability factor. Results support the structural validity of the first-order and higher-order factors of the WISC-IV within this sample. The normative first-order factor structure was replicated in this sample, and the Schmid-Leiman procedure identified a higher-order general ability factor that accounted for the greatest amount of common variance (70%) and total variance (37%). The results support the structural validity of the WISC-IV within a referred Native American sample. The outcome also suggests that interpretation of the WISC-IV scores should focus on the global ability factor. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Educational Psychology 2011

From an accounting standpoint, the concept of social responsibility has gained a lot of momentum with both academicians and practitioners. Many of the top public accounting firms' offer social responsibility reporting services. Also, many CPA firms, most of which tend to be private partnerships and sole proprietorships, are engaged in social responsibility initiatives. CPA Social Responsibility at the level of a business owner is a concept that is largely unexplored in the academic literature. The overwhelming majority of academic papers have looked at social responsibility from the standpoint of a corporation, that is, Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). The lack of adequate development of social responsibility at the level of a business owner has led to a gap in the research in terms of methodology and of the causal relationships that social responsibility may have on variety of outcomes. This study conducts a thorough literature review on the concept of social responsibility, and then in conjunction with a qualitative analysis consisting of interviews with CPAs (who own their business - that is, sole proprietors and partners), this paper defines social responsibility. Using the definitions generated by the literature review and the expert panel, this paper uses the grounding of Nicomachean Ethics to derive the definitions and elucidate the underlying dimensions of CPA Social Responsibility. Further, the study uses power analysis, factor analysis, scree plots, multidimensional scaling, perceptual maps, and a sequential process to develop and validate an instrument to measure the concept of CPA Social Responsibility at the level of a business owner.

The purpose of this mixed-method study was to examine and to explore international students’ perceptions of resilience and how they coped with stress during their pursuit of a college degree. This study also explored forms of assistance international students received while studying at the university, how students capitalized on their own qualities to overcome obstacles, and to discover resilience factors that empowered international students despite challenges they encountered during the course of study. The researcher utilized two surveys, namely the Resilience Scale (RS) (Wagnild & Young, 1993) and the Coping Strategy Indicator (CSI) (Amirkhan, 1990), and a focus group interview to collect data for the study. The sample of the study consisted of 117 students for the RS, 106 students for the CSI, and 6 students for the focus group. All students were internationals from a Midwestern university in the United States. The findings of the study revealed that there was no significant difference in the RS scores for both undergraduate and graduate international students or for females and males respectively. The study also confirmed that there was no significant difference in the CSI scores for undergraduate and graduate international students. However, there was a significant difference between females and males in their CSI scores, suggesting that females were more likely than males to seek social support when they encountered challenges in life. Qualitative data from the focus group yielded meaningful insights on the obstacles that international students had to overcome, assistance international students received while in the United States, and protective factors students possessed in order to be successful in the university. The study also included a factor analysis of the data that confirmed a 3-factor structure of CSI (labeled respectively as Problem Solving, Seeking Social Support, and Avoidance). Even though factor analysis also verified the original 25-item 5-factor structure of RS, yielding a 5-factor structure of resilience (Meaningfulness, Equanimity, Self-Reliance, Perseverance, and Existential Aloneness), due to several cross loadings of the variables onto the factors, the analysis failed to verify the same variables contributed to the original 5-factor in RS. Plausible explanations for the discrepancy of the study of RS were explored.

A very simple structure is sought when using factor analysis to develop measurement scales. The present article is about the SIMLOAD program; it computes measures of factor simplicity for rows and columns of loading matrices (usually the factor pattern) as well assome overall measures. These include Kaiser’s (1974) index of factor simplicity for variables (rows), Fleming’s scale fit index for factors (columns), Bentler’s (1977) scale-free matrix measure, and hyperplane counts. Routine use of these measures is recommended for multifactor scale development. The measures may also be useful in more general factorapplications, and in confirmatory as well as  exploratory analysis. SIMLOAD additionally computes factor scale intercorrelations, scale alpha coefficients, including alpha when item removed, and sorted loadings for ease of interpretation. / Una estructura simple es sólida cuando se utiliza el análisis factorial para desarrollar instrumentos de medición. El presente artículo se basa en el programa SIMLOAD, que produce índices que miden la simplicidad factorial para las filas y columnas de una matriz de cargas factoriales (generalmente, el patrón de factores), tanto como índices globales de ajuste. Estos incluyen para las filas el índice de simplicidad factorial de Kaiser (1974); para las columnas, el índice de ajuste a la escala de Fleming; la medida matriz libre de escalas de Bentler (1977); y, el conteo de hiperplanos. Estas medidas se recomiendan para la construcción de escalas multifactoriales. Estos índices también pueden ser útiles para aplicaciones factoriales más generales, en el análisis exploratorio o confirmatorio. El programa SIMLOAD también calcula intercorrelaciones entre las escalas, coeficientes alfa de Cronbach, el efecto de la eliminación de un ítem sobre el alfa y el  ordenamiento de las cargas factoriales de los ítems para facilitar la interpretación de la matriz resultante.

In general, scholars agree that there are several contextual factors influencing immigrants in the UK to use alcohol and other drugs. Not much is known however about how and to what extend acculturative changes are influencing substance use in immigrants and members of minority ethnic groups. This study aims to develop a better understanding of the predictors of substance use by exploring the impact that acculturative changes have in patterns of substance use amongst Brazilian immigrants in the UK. A combination of quantitative and qualitative methods was adopted in a cross-national research sample compromised of Brazilian participants residing in the UK (n=164) and Brazilian participants residing in Brazil (n=161). Initially, quantitative analysis was carried out to explore country differences in types, frequency, and predictors of substance use. The quantitative analysis was followed by qualitative data collection to explore in-depth complex issues related to social and cultural factors that underlie the susceptibility of Brazilian immigrants to use alcohol and other drugs. Thematic Analysis was adopted to analyse the qualitative data. It was observed that Brazilians who had immigrated to the UK showed an overall increase in the frequency with which they used substances, however, significant differences were only found in recreational drug use, poly-substance use, and binge drinking. Such shifts were influenced by attitudes, values, and behavioural changes, and were strongly predicted by the stress caused by threat to cultural identity. Both drinking for social motives and gender differences predicted involvement in substance use in Brazilians in the UK and in Brazil, whereas resilience, impulsivity, positive and negative affect, and reasons for drinking motivated by conformity and coping where found to have no effect on patterns of substance use in either of the samples. Overall, it seems that, whilst Brazilians in the UK are motivated by negative reinforcement processes to use substances (e.g. coping), in Brazil participants are motivated by positive reinforcement processes (e.g. enhancement). High contact with both British and Brazilian cultures will only predict substance use when threat to cultural identity moderates this relationship. Brazilian immigrants new to the UK are at greater risk for substance use independent of any acculturative strategies or stresses. Length of residence in the UK does not predict the adoption of integration strategies and the stresses caused by acculturation can be experienced throughout the life course of the Brazilian immigrants in the UK.

Informal caregivers of individuals with cancer may experience substantial burdens. To develop interventions to support these caregivers, it is crucial to quantify and understand the domains of burdens potentially experienced by caregivers and factors contributing to each domain. Using data from two national surveys, the National Survey of Caregiving (NSOC) linked to the National Health and Aging Trends Survey (NHATS), we identified all participants in the NHATS diagnosed with cancer who had a caregiver participating in the NSOC. Guided by a theoretical model, twenty-two items in the NSOC related to caregiver health, mood and outlook were included in factor analysis to develop scales capturing domains of burden. Multivariable regression analyses examined whether activities performed by caregivers and supports for caregivers were associated with these burden scales. Analysis of responses from 373 caregivers of cancer patients identified three scales: emotional burden; psychological burden; and relationship with the patient. Providing assistance managing medical care was associated with increased emotional and psychological burden, while assistance with non-medical issues increased psychological burden and worsened relationships with patients. Caregiver provision of direct patient care activities was also associated with increased burden but improved relationships with patients. Use of caregiver supports showed mixed associations with burden. Using a nationally-representative sample of cancer patients and their caregivers and brief publicly-available survey questions, we present three scales addressing different aspects of caregiver burden that are responsive to caregiver activities and social supports. This may assist in developing and evaluating intervention to decrease caregiver burden.

Distress tolerance (DT) is the perceived ability to withstand psychological stress, and has been studied for its relationship to psychopathology, personality features, mood states, and behaviors. Previous work suggests that the two existing modalities of DT measurement (behavioral and self-report) are tapping conceptually and empirically different constructs. The current developed a novel, self-report measure of DT that conceptually mapped onto behavioral DT in two samples: community participants (N = 982) and undergraduates (N = 282). Two separate factors emerged, non-goal oriented distress intolerance (DI), and goal-oriented distress tolerance (DT). Fit indices were acceptable in the community sample, but poor in the college sample. Both factors showed associations with existing self-report (SR) DT measures, behavioral outcomes, and behavioral tasks (in the college sample) supporting construct validity. Associations with the DT personality network were similar to that of the existing DT-SR measures, and failed to support discriminant validity. Likewise, the documentation of the novel measures with the broad DT nomological network showed predicted associations with personality, mood, and psychopathology, supporting existing literature. Novel measures predicted some significant variance in DT outcomes (psychopathology, behavioral outcomes), above and beyond existing DT-SR, however magnitude was small in nature, and the college sample failed to replicate these results. Measurement invariance testing showed failure at the scalar level in college students. Overall, novel measures did not provide clear support for a separate behavioral definition of DT, and corroborated prior studies investigating extant DT measures and the broad DT nomological network.

Magister Artium (Psychology) - MA(Psych) / Globally the Subjective Well-Being (SWB) of children is recognized as having a significant effect on the child's psychological and social functioning. Furthermore, not only does children's SWB have effects on childhood well-being research, it has also increased the knowledge of how children view their life that has been determined through the measurement of specific domains that relates to children's lives. The overall aim of this study was to ascertain the SWB of children across three age groups in the Western Cape. Within this process, the study further aimed to fit the structural model depicting the nature of the relationship between global, domain specific and overall life satisfaction across three age groups. The Theory of Model Fit: Goodness of Fit and Fit Indexes was used as the theoretical position conceptualising the study. The sample included 3236 children aged 8, 10, and 12 years selected using stratified random sampling from 29 schools in the Western Cape. The study used Structural Equation Modelling and Multi-group Confirmatory Factor Analysis to address the stated aims and objectives. Ethics principles of informed consent, anonymity, the right to withdraw and privacy were adhered to within the study. Findings of this study indicate that the descriptive statistics depicted high levels of SWB for both measures with mean composite scores ranging between 81.20 to 86.15 for the SLSS; and 83.29 to 84.07 for the PWI-SC. Confirmatory factor analysis showed excellent fit for both the SLSS and the PWI-SC across age groups (multi-group model). The application of Multi-group Confirmatory Factor Analysis in the current study found the measures to be comparable across the three age groups (8, 10 & 12) for the SLSS and two age groups for the PWI-SC (10 & 12). A combined model with two latent constructs, representing different levels of abstraction was also tested. An excellent fit was obtained for this combined model. Appropriate fit statistics was obtained for the overall pooled sample. The standardised regression weights of 0.57 for the PWI-SC and 0.47 for the SLSS point to adequate loadings of the latent constructs onto the OLS. Markedly, it was found that a significant overall mean difference was found between the 10 and 12-year olds and not between the 8 and 10-year olds; while for the domain-specific PWI-SC a similar tendency was noted across the 10 and 12-year olds participants (8 year old group was not applicable in this analysis). / National Research Foundation (NRF)

Master of Science / Department of Statistics / Thomas M. Loughin / Traditionally, major-league scouts have evaluated young “position players,” those who are not pitchers, using the “Five Tools”: hitting for average, hitting for power, running, throwing, and fielding. However, “sabermetricians,” those who study the science of baseball, e.g. Bill James, have been trying to evaluate position players using quantifiable measures of performance. In this study, a factor analysis was used to determine underlying characteristics of minor-league hitters. The underlying factors were determined to be slugging ability, lead-off hitting ability, “patience” at the plate, and pure-hitting ability. Additionally, an ordinal response was created from the number of at-bats and on-base plus slugging percentage in the majors during the 2002-05 seasons. The underlying characteristics along with other variables such as a player’s age, position, and level in the minors are used in a cumulative logit logistic regression model to predict a player’s probability of notable success in the majors. The model is built upon data from the 2002 minor-league season and data from the 2002, 2003, 2004, and 2005 major-league seasons.