L’importance écologique et agronomique des abeilles sauvages dans les paysages agricoles rend cruciale la gestion de ces insectes pollinisateurs. Les abeilles sauvages utilisent plusieurs habitats dans les paysages agricoles, comme les milieux semi-naturels (bois, haies, prairies permanentes), mais aussi les parcelles agricoles. L’objectif de ce travail est de caractériser la structure des communautés de pollinisateurs et le succès de pollinisation le long de gradients de composition et de configuration des milieux semi-naturels ainsi que d’intensité des pratiques agricoles à l’échelle paysagère. Par une approche basée sur les trais écologiques, traduisant des différences d’utilisation des ressources par les abeilles sauvages, nous avons mis en évidence que i) les abeilles sauvages peu mobiles, les espèces solitaires mais aussi les espèces terricoles (nids souterrains) sont plus abondantes dans des parcelles agricoles entourées d’une forte proportion de prairies permanentes faiblement fragmentées, ii) les parcelles entourées d’une forte quantité de lisières forestières présentent une abondance plus importante d’espèces peu mobiles, d’espèces tardives, sociales et polylectiques, iii) les espèces oligolectiques sont filtrées (exclues) dans les paysages fortement boisés car ce sont des espèces profitant de ressources fournies par la mosaïque cultivée. Nous avons aussi mis en évidence que l’effet positif de la proportion en milieux semi-naturels sur la diversité des abeilles sauvages était plus important dans des paysages à la mosaïque agricole gérée de façon intensive. Nous montrons par ailleurs que l’intensité locale des pratiques agricoles peut autant influencer la diversité des abeilles sauvages que la proportion de milieux semi-naturels environnants. Enfin, nous montrons que, suivant les situations, l’abondance des espèces d’abeilles sauvages dominantes ou la présence d’un assemblage d’espèces peu communes peut expliquer le succès de pollinisation. Il semblerait que, dans le cas où le succès de pollinisation répond à l’occurrence d’espèces peu communes, la proportion de milieux semi-naturels aurait une influence positive sur le succès de pollinisation par les abeilles sauvages. Ce travail de thèse démontre l’importance d’espèces peu communes, dépendantes des milieux semi-naturels, pour le succès de pollinisation mais aussi la relation positive entre l’abondance de certains groupes d’espèces et la proportion de milieux semi-naturels. Ce travail permet donc de soutenir l’hypothèse selon laquelle les milieux semi-naturels sont garants du maintien de la diversité des abeilles sauvages et des services rendus par ces dernières. Cependant, l’effet positif des milieux semi-naturels sur la diversité des abeilles sauvages est variable, puisque il dépend des pratiques agricoles à l’échelle locale et paysagère. Les préconisations d’aménagement paysager et de modifications des pratiques ne peuvent donc être faites indépendamment les unes des autres. / The ecological and agricultural importance of wild bees in farmlands stresses the needs for management strategies for these insect pollinators. Wild bees use multiple habitats in agricultural landscapes, such as semi-natural habitats (woodlands, hedgerows, permanent grasslands) and crop fields. This study aims to characterize the community structure of wild bees and assess pollination delivery along gradients of landscape heterogeneity – based on the composition and configuration of semi-natural habitats – and landscape-wide intensity of farming practices. Using a trait-based approach, based on traits determining resource-use by wild bee species, we showed that i) the least mobile species, solitary bees and ground-nesting species were more abundant in crop fields surrounded by large amounts of little-fragmented permanent grasslands, ii) crop fields surrounded by high amount of woodland edges supported a greater abundance of little-mobile bee species, late-emerging bees, social bees and polylectic bees, iii) oligolectic bee species were filtered out in highly forested landscapes, because these species could thrive on resources provided by the crop mosaic. We also found that the positive effect of the proportion of semi-natural habitats on bee diversity was greater in landscapes with intensively managed crop mosaic. Moreover, we showed that the local intensity of farming practices had as much influence on bee diversity as the proportion of semi-natural habitats. Finally, we showed that, depending on situations, the abundance fluctuations of dominant bee species or the occurrence of an assemblage of uncommon bee species can explain variations in pollination success. In the cases where pollination success responded to the occurrence of uncommon species, the proportion of semi-natural habitats had a positive influence on pollination delivery provided by wild bees. This study shows the importance of some uncommon species, dependent on semi-natural habitats, for pollination delivery but also the positive relationship between the abundance of some species groups and the proportion of semi-natural habitats. This work therefore confirms the hypothesis that semi-natural habitats sustain the diversity of wild bee communities and pollination delivery. However, the positive effect of semi-natural habitats on bee diversity depends on farming practices at the local and landscape scale. Therefore, recommendations on the management of landscape heterogeneity and changes in farming practices cannot be given independently from each other.

La presente investigación inicia con el estado del arte, el cual se basa en artículos indexados con conceptos de metodologías de investigación en la gestión de la calidad. El primer capítulo presenta un marco teórico, el cual fundamenta las metodologías y herramientas utilizadas. Asimismo, se identifica los procesos principales de gestión de calidad y las buenas prácticas, que enmarcan una serie de actividades para planificar, controlar y mejorar la calidad del producto. El segundo capítulo corresponde a la situación actual de las MYPEs y el diagnóstico, donde se delimita el sector y el lugar de estudio. En este capítulo, se identifica las brechas que existe entre el proceso actual en las micro y pequeñas empresas en contraste con los procesos propuestos de acuerdo con la revisión de la literatura. Asimismo, se desarrolló una propuesta de mejorar en la calidad de la fruta en base las herramientas y conceptos de gestión de la calidad. El tercer capítulo corresponde al diseño y desarrollo. En este capítulo se diseñó un modelo basado en la gestión de la calidad que permitirá subsanar las brechas identificadas en el diagnóstico y generar un impacto positivo. También, desarrollaron procesos, procedimientos, fichas de registro y hojas de verificación, los cuales servirán para controlar y asegurar la calidad del producto. Finalmente, en el cuarto capítulo, el modelo fue validado por expertos en el área y en los temas de gestión de calidad y procesos. / The current research begins with the state of the art, which is based on articles indexed with concepts of research methodologies in Quality Management. The first chapter presents a theoretical framework, which bases the methodologies and tools used. Likewise, the main quality management processes and good practices are identified, which frame a series of activities to plan, control and improve product quality. The second chapter corresponds to the current situation of SMEs and the diagnosis, where it delimits the sector and the place of study. In this chapter, the gaps that exist between the current process in micro and small companies are identified in contrast to the processes proposed according to the literature review. Likewise, a proposal was developed to improve the quality of the fruit based on the tools and concepts of Quality Management. The third chapter corresponds to design and development. In this chapter, a quality management-based model was designed, which will make it possible to correct the gaps identified in the diagnosis and generate a positive impact. They also developed processes, procedures, record sheets and verification sheets, which will be useful to control and ensure product quality. Finally, in the fourth chapter, the model was validated by experts in the area and in quality management areas and processes. / Tesis

This doctoral thesis examines the history of the Iraqw’ar Da/aw area in the Mbulu Highlands of northern Tanzania. Since the late nineteenth century this area has been known for its intensive cultivation, and referred to as an “island” within a matrix of less intensive land use. The conventional explanation for its characteristics has been high population densities resulting from the prevention of expansion by hostility from surrounding pastoral groups, leading to a siegelike situation. Drawing on an intensive programme of interviews, detailed field mapping and studies of aerial photographs, early travellers’ accounts and landscape photographs, this study challenges that explanation. The study concludes that the process of agricultural intensification has largely been its own driving force, based on self-reinforcing processes of change, and not a consequence of land scarcity.

Examines the character construction of the Hesiodic ‘farmer’ in the scholarship of Works and Days. Questions Hesiod’s intimacy of agricultural knowledge: was he a practical farmer or a non-farming poet? Using my farming experience I question the adequacy of the information in Works and Days for use as a farming manual. Lines 635-640 - Hesiod’s description of the climatic conditions of Ascra in respect to farming are set against soil properties (soil biochemistry as an evaluating tool) and agricultural responses (farming methods of other cultures) shows Hesiod to have little grasp of the farming methods each situation requires. Text comparatives: Fan Shêng-Chih Shu an ancient Chinese agricultural text detailed with attention to soil fertility. Supporting ancient texts: Cato on Agriculture, Columella on Agriculture, Theophrastus on Plants, Xenophon Oeconomics and Homer’s Odyssey for references to dung and soil fertility. The vague farming information suggests a non-personalized experience - the Hesiodic ‘farmer’ is probably not a practical farmer at all.

Examines the character construction of the Hesiodic ‘farmer’ in the scholarship of Works and Days. Questions Hesiod’s intimacy of agricultural knowledge: was he a practical farmer or a non-farming poet? Using my farming experience I question the adequacy of the information in Works and Days for use as a farming manual. Lines 635-640 - Hesiod’s description of the climatic conditions of Ascra in respect to farming are set against soil properties (soil biochemistry as an evaluating tool) and agricultural responses (farming methods of other cultures) shows Hesiod to have little grasp of the farming methods each situation requires. Text comparatives: Fan Shêng-Chih Shu an ancient Chinese agricultural text detailed with attention to soil fertility. Supporting ancient texts: Cato on Agriculture, Columella on Agriculture, Theophrastus on Plants, Xenophon Oeconomics and Homer’s Odyssey for references to dung and soil fertility. The vague farming information suggests a non-personalized experience - the Hesiodic ‘farmer’ is probably not a practical farmer at all.

Dans les hauts plateaux des Andes entre le Pérou et la Bolivie, à 3 800 mètres d’altitude s’étend le lac Titicaca, berceau des civilisations précolombiennes et l’un des principaux centres mondiaux de domestication des espèces végétales cultivées pour l’agriculture. Cette région est reconnue comme le centre d’origine du quinoa, C. quinoa Willd. Elle concentre la plus grande diversité génétique du quinoa, tant pour les variétés paysannes cultivées que pour les espèces sauvages apparentées. Notre recherche a été conduite dans la région de Puno, Pérou, qui reste l’une des principales régions productrices de quinoa au monde. Le quinoa y présente une distribution spatiale selon un gradient climatique nord-sud et une différenciation en zones agroécologiques liée à l’altitude. Actuellement, sept principales espèces de parents sauvages du quinoa y sont présentes : C.ambrosioides L., C.incisum Poiret, C.pallidicaule Aellen, C.petiolare Kunth, C.hircinum Schrad., C.quinoa ssp. melanospermum Hunz. et C.carnosolum Moq. Cette diversité de ressources génétiques a une grande valeur pour l’évolution adaptative du quinoa notamment face aux effets du changement climatique. Notre thèse s’inscrit dans l’importance économique et culturelle du quinoa, étant à la fois une ressource alimentaire des régions andines et l’objet des marchés internationaux du fait de ses qualités nutritives. Cette opportunité économique peut avoir des impacts en termes de sécurité alimentaire, d’agrobiodiversité, et de gestion de l’agroécosystème. Cette thèse a analysé comment les communautés agricoles andines intègrent la présence des espèces de parents sauvages dans leurs pratiques de gestion et leurs pratiques agricoles autour du quinoa. Des cartographies participatives et des enquêtes ethnobotaniques ont été réalisées avec les membres de six villages choisis selon des critères biogéographiques. La modélisation chorématique a été appliquée à deux périodes, avant et après 1970, année charnière au Pérou pour l’agriculture, dans le but de montrer comment les dynamiques socio-spatiales du milieu andin se modifient, notamment en lien avec l’évolution de la culture du quinoa. La distribution des espèces de parents sauvages du quinoa apparaît fortement liée à l’organisation socio-spatiale de l’agroécosystème. Ces espèces sont maintenues par les villageois pour leurs multiples usages alimentaires, médicinaux et culturels, dans des espaces naturels, des zones pâturées, aux abords et également à l’intérieur des champs cultivés. Ceci est à la fois le résultat de la gestion dynamique organisée par les communautés rurales et des savoirs liés à ces espèces qui se transmettent de génération en génération. Cependant cette gestion est en train de changer sous la pression d’enjeux globaux liés au marché international du quinoa, dont les exigences impliquent de réduire la présence de parents sauvages dans les champs cultivés. En conclusion, la thèse aborde la durabilité des pratiques de gestion et des pratiques agricoles dans un objectif de conservation dynamique in situ de la biodiversité sauvage et cultivée. Une mise en perspective historique des résultats nous a permis de questionner l’évolution des pratiques de gestion de ces différentes espèces par les communautés locales. En termes d’implication, deux types de projets pourraient être réfléchis. Le développement de projets prenant en compte le maintien de la présence des parents sauvages du quinoa dans le champ cultivé est favorable à l’introduction de gènes d’intérêt pour aider le quinoa à s’adapter à des conditions écologiques changeantes sous les effets du changement climatique. Egalement, des projets spécifiques de conservation in situ de l’agrobiodiversité, qui considèrent l’espace naturel et l’espace cultivé comme un ensemble cohérent, représentent une voie de gestion de pools de gènes importante pour l’agriculture et l’alimentation mondiale / Lake Titicaca, the cradle of pre-Columbian civilizations and one of the world’s main centres of domestication for farmed plant species, lies 3,800 m above sea level in the central Andean Highlands between Peru and Bolivia. The region is acknowledged as the centre of origin of quinoa, Chenopodium quinoa Willd. The greatest genetic diversity of quinoa and its wild relatives is concentrated there. Our research was conducted in the Puno region (Peru), which remains one of the main quinoa producing regions in the world. Quinoa displays spatial distribution along a North-South climate gradient in the region, with differentiation into mostly elevation-related, agro-ecological zones that explain its genetic diversity. Seven main quinoa crop wild relatives currently exist there: C. ambrosioides L., C. incisum Poiret, C. pallidicaule Aellen, C. petiolare Kunth, C. hircinum Schrad., C. quinoa ssp. melanospermum Hunz. and C. carnosolum Moq. This diversity of plant genetic resources is of great value for the adaptive evolution of quinoa, especially under the effect of climate change. This PhD thesis deals with the economic and cultural importance of quinoa, which is both a food resource in the Andean regions and an international commodity due to its exceptional nutritional qualities (protein-rich). This economic opportunity may have impacts on local food security, agrobiodiversity and agro-ecosystem management. One way of investigating this issue is to examine how the distribution of crop wild relatives is linked to the way quinoa cultivation is spatially organized. The thesis analysed how Andean farming communities incorporate the presence of wild relatives in their quinoa-related management and farming practices. Participatory mapping and ethnobotanical surveys were carried out with members of six villages chosen according to biogeographical criteria along a North South gradient, combined with data related to elevation and the proximity to Lake Titicaca. In order to show how the socio-spatial dynamics of the Andean environment are changing, notably linked to changes in quinoa growing, chorematic modelling was applied to two periods, before and after 1970, which was a pivotal year for Peruvian farming (agrarian reform, territorial rights of indigenous communities). The distribution of quinoa crop wild relatives seems to be closely linked to how the agro-ecosystem is spatially organized. Local communities keep these species for their multiple food, medicinal and cultural uses in natural areas, grazing areas, around and in farmed fields. This results from the dynamic management organized by rural communities, and from knowledge of those species passed down through the generations, by both women and men. However, management is changing under the pressure of global challenges arising from the international quinoa market, which calls for fewer wild parents in farmed fields. To conclude, the thesis looks at the sustainability of management and farming practices with a view to dynamic in situ conservation of wild and cultivated biodiversity. Choremes are used to place the results in historical perspective, to see how the management of these different species by local communities is evolving. In terms of implications, two types of project could be considered. Developing projects that keep quinoa crop wild relatives in farmed fields promotes the introduction of genes of interest, helping quinoa to adapt to ecological conditions being modified by climate change. Likewise, specific projects for in situ conservation of agrobiodiversity, which consider natural and cultivated areas as a coherent whole, are a way of managing gene pools that is important for agriculture and for feeding the world.

<p>This dissertation is a policy driven ethnography of smallholder and alternative farmers in Indiana that centers food justice and utilizes interdisciplinary frameworks to analyze the adaptive strategies that farmers use to address the specific challenges they face. Through the implementation of adaptive strategies such as regenerative growing practices, the cultivation of community, stewardship of the land, and an emphasis on transparency, the smallholders I worked with over the course of this study negotiate complex agricultural spaces and build the resilience of their farmsteads and the communities they serve. Smallholder and alternative farmers in Indiana are reimagining the agricultural spaces they occupy and driving transformational change of dominant narratives and local food systems. Critiques of conventional agriculture and commodity production are not intended to reify binary perceptions of the agricultural paradigm, but rather to demonstrate that the critical role of smallholder and alternatives farmers should be valued as well. </p> <p> </p> <p>This research draws on four years of ethnographic research, archival sources, and close readings of policy measures and media reports to illuminate the historical context that has positioned smallholders in juxtaposition to large-scale conventional agriculture, and the critical role of smallholder farmers in driving food systems change while centering food justice and community resiliency. The driving research questions for the following essays follow: Why have small scale and alternative farmers chosen to farm (and farm differently)? What specific challenges do they face and how might these challenges be better addressed by existing support systems and new legislation? What can be learned from the alternative narratives and reimagined spaces smallholder farmers engage with? This work joins the growing body of research that challenges agricultural meta-narratives by presenting a counter-narrative of smallholder resilience and the <i>a priori</i> notion that posits agricultural technology as a panacea for everything from world hunger to economics to environmental concerns. </p>

<p>The Lake Bosomtwe impact crater is located in the Ashanti region of Ghana, West Africa. The impact crater diameter from rim to rim is approximately 10.5 km wide with a lake located at the center. Three different districts touch the lake containing 155,000 hectacres of land. There are approximately 7,500 people from 24 villages, and 12 of those villages reside within walking distance of the lake shore. Within the last ten years, the lake has been subjected to overfishing and environmental degradation. The health of the lake has declined due to overfishing and algae blooms caused by improper fertilization rates. Because of these factors, residents of the area have been forced to transition to subsidence farming as their main vocation. According to the Ghana Statistical Service group, 97.6% of the population participates in some form of rural crop farming (Ghana Statistical Service, 2010). Experience with common practices such as crop rotation, fertilizer use, and erosion control is extremely limited. The lake has not been recommended for recreational use due to the excess runoff in the form of agrochemicals, liquid, and organic waste. Caged aquaculture and traditional fishing within Lake Bosomtwe is currently illegal.</p><p><br></p><p>A comprehensive Institutional Review Board (IRB) survey was developed for the six primary research questions to be examined. From these six research questions, 147 specific questions were developed. Three of the 147 questions were to obtain Global Positioning System (GPS) data for community households, pit latrines, and water wells or boreholes. This study sought to interview 10-15 farmers per village, for each of the 12 villages located along the shore of Lake Bosomtwe of their perspective on land use change/cover in the Lake Bosomtwe area, current farming practices, current water sanitation and hygiene practices, and current fishing practices. These surveys were collected in the form of oral responses, for which 118 small-holder farmers were interviewed. Of the participants surveyed, 66% were qualified to answer all questions, and 100% of participants completed the survey.</p><p><br></p><p>Some specific statistical tests were conducted based of market assessment survey. It was determined that no association between gender and level of education existed. Meaning, that female participants interviewed have just as many opportunities as male participants to pursue education beyond Junior High School (JHS). Yield averages between the villages on the north side of the lake with road access and villages on the southern portion of the lake with limited to no road access were determined to be significantly different. It was determined that road access does affect village yield. When comparing average usable yields between villages located on the northern side of the lake with road access or between villages on the southern side of the lake with limited to no road access, these results were not statistically significant. No significant difference in the scores for villages with road access on the northern side of the lake and villages with limited to no road access on the southern side of the lake existed. Therefore, road access does not affect village usable yield. Through statistical analysis an association was determined between people who practice bathing and washing in the lake and those who practice fishing as a form of livelihood.</p><p><br></p><p>Four decision matrices were created to prioritize the following items: Farm Components, technologies to showcase at an appropriate technology center, improved farming practices to showcase through Demonstration Plots, and extension outreach topics. The top three results for the Farm Components were: Appropriate Technology Center (ATC), Demonstration Plots, and a Micro-Credit Union. The top three technologies to showcase as part of the ATC are: PICS Bags, Moisture Meters, and Above-Ground Aquaculture. The three demonstration plots recommended terracing/erosion control, crop rotation, and cover crops. The highest priority extension outreach topics were: basic home/farm finance, improving health through washing stations, and post-harvest loss prevention. The top three priorities of each decision matrix will be the focus of further study, so that these topics can be developed and programs focusing on these needs can be implemented in collaboration with the community partners.</p>

To date, there has been little research into the role of microbial community structure in the functioning of the soil ecosystem and on the links between microbial biomass size, microbial activity and key soil processes that drive nutrient availability. The maintenance of structural and functional diversity of the soil microbial community is essential to ensure the sustainability of agricultural production systems. Soils of the same type with similar fertility that had been under long-term organic and conventional crop management in Canterbury, New Zealand, were selected to investigate relationships between microbial community composition, function and potential environmental impacts. The effects of different fertilisation strategies on soil biology and nitrogen (N) dynamics were investigated under field (farm site comparison), semi-controlled (lysimeter study) and controlled (incubation experiments) conditions by determining soil microbial biomass carbon (C) and N, enzyme activities (dehydrogenase, arginine deaminase, fluorescein diacetate hydrolysis), microbial community structure (denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis following PCR amplification of 16S and 18S rDNA fragments using selected primer sets) and N dynamics (mineralisation and leaching). The farm site comparison revealed distinct differences between the soils in microbial community structure, microbial biomass C (conventional>organic) and arginine deaminase activity (organic>conventional). In the lysimeter study, the soils were subjected to the same crop rotation (barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), maize (Zea mais L.), rape (Brassica napus L. ssp. oleifera (Moench)) plus a lupin green manure (Lupinus angustifolius L.) and two fertiliser regimes (following common organic and conventional practice). Soil biological properties, microbial community structure and mineral N leaching losses were determined over 2½ years. Differences in mineral leaching losses were not significant between treatments (total organic management: 24.2 kg N ha⁻¹; conventional management: 28.6 kg N ha⁻¹). Crop rotation and plant type had a larger influence on the microbial biomass, activity and community structure than fertilisation. Initial differences between soils decreased over time for most biological soil properties, while they persisted for the enzyme activities (e.g. dehydrogenase activity: 4.0 and 2.9 µg g⁻¹ h⁻¹ for organic and conventional management history, respectively). A lack of consistent positive links between enzyme activities and microbial biomass size indicated that similarly sized and structured microbial communities can express varying rates of activity. In two successive incubation experiments, the soils were amended with different rates of a lupin green manure (4 or 8t dry matter ha⁻¹), and different forms of N at 100 kg ha⁻¹ (urea and lupin) and incubated for 3 months. Samples were taken periodically, and in addition to soil biological properties and community structure, gross N mineralisation was determined. The form of N had a strong effect on microbial soil properties. Organic amendment resulted in a 2 to 5-fold increase in microbial biomass and enzyme activities, while microbial community structure was influenced by the addition or lack of C or N substrate. Correlation analyses suggested treatment-related differences in nutrient availability, microbial structural diversity (species richness or evenness) and physiological properties of the microbial community. The findings of this thesis showed that using green manures and crop rotations improved soil biology in both production systems, that no relationships existed between microbial structure, enzyme activities and N mineralisation, and that enzyme activities and microbial community structure are more closely associated with inherent soil and environmental factors, which makes them less useful as early indicators of changes in soil quality.