Ligas de alumínio que contém lítio são conhecidas por serem materiais atraentes devido à sua baixa densidade, alta elasticidade, alta resistencia mecânica e boa resistência à corrosão. A degradação do material devido à fadiga e corrosão são os dois principais fatores que contribuem para o envelhecimento de uma aeronave, e a previsão de corrosão e fadiga sob corrosão são muito importantes para sua integridade estrutural. A ocorrencia de pites de corrosão pode reduzir significativamente a iniciação da trinca de fadiga e diminuir a variação da intensidade de tensão limite destas ligas em até 50%. Com o objetivo de analisar novas ligas Al que estão no mercado, este trabalho compara o comportamento mecânico, de fadiga de baixo ciclo e eletroquímico das ligas de aluminio 2525 T3 e 7050 T7451 utilizadas pela EMBRAER, com o das ligas T851 2198 e 7081 T73511. Assim, ensaios de nucleação de trinca por fadiga foram realizados ao ar e em espécimes pré-condicionadas por 15 dias em névoa salina 5%, para a obtenção de curvas S-N. Curvas de polarização potenciodinâmicas foram obtidas para a investigação eletroquímica do comportamento destas ligas em um ambiente corrosivo. Também foram feitos ensaios de resistência à tração e dureza. Os resultados obtidos da série 2XXX mostram que as ligas são menos susceptíveis à corrosão por pites por apresentarem valores de Epite mais positivos que as ligas da série 7XXX. Porém, seus valores de jcorr também são mais positivos, o que aumenta a velocidade de corrosão das ligas, uma vez iniciado o processo. Tal fato se deve à presença de precipitados e elementos de liga que agem de modo a elevar o potencial para valores mais altos. Análises metalográficas por microscopia ótica e de varredura foram realizadas para se determinar os precipitados presentes em cada uma das ligas estudadas. O comportamento em fadiga das ligas pré-condicionadas em ambiente salino foi inferior em relação ao comportamento das ligas mantidas ao ar. Os pites funcionaram como concentradores de tensão, aumentando a ocorrência de nucleação de trincas de fadiga. A resistência à fadiga ao ar das ligas estudadas foi ligeiramente inferior ao das ligas bases. Entretanto, as quatro curvas obtidas para os espécimes pré-condicionados apresentaram-se superpostas. Isso indica que a ação dos pites rege o mecanismo de nucleação das trincas, enquanto que em ar, adiciona-se a ação do acabamento superficial. / Lithium-containing aluminum alloys are known to be attractive materials because of their low densities, high elastic modulus, high strengths and good corrosion resistance. Material degradation due to fatigue and corrosion are two major factors that contribute to the aging of an aircraft, and the prediction of corrosion and corrosionfatigue are very important for the structural integrity of aircrafts. The presence of corrosion pits can significantly shorten the fatigue crack initiation life and decrease the threshold stress intensity of an alloy by as much as 50%. The purpose of this work was to compare mechanical, fatigue and electrochemical behavior of the new \'AL\' alloys, 2198 T851 and 7081 T73511 that are on the market, with those used by EMBRAER, named 2525 T3 and 7050 T7451. The comparisons also considered fatigue resistance in pre-corrosion confining in salt environment. Therefore, air and 15-day-confined 5% salt environment specimens were submitted to crack nucleation tests to obtain S-N curves. Potentiodynamic polarization curves were also plotted to study the electrochemical behavior of this alloys in a corrosion environment. Tensile and hardness tests were performed. The obtained results for the 2XXX series showed that these alloys are less susceptible to pitting corrosion due to more positives Epite compared to 7XXX series. However, their jcorr values are also more positive, increasing the corrosion speed once it has begun. This happens due to the presence of some precipitates and a few elements that react in a way to increase the potential to higher values. Optical and electronic microscopy analyses were performed to determine the nature of precipitates of each alloy. The fatigue behavior of the salty-pre-confined environment specimens was much inferior compared to air test specimens according to each corrosion environment. Pits work as tension concentration, increasing fatigue crack nucleation. Air fatigue resistance of the new alloys was slightly inferior than the base alloys, but when the tests under pre-confined environment were conducted, the four curves overlapped. This implies that the pit action governs crack nucleation mechanism, while in air, surface finishing is an additional factor.

Este projeto faz parte de uma Rede Interdisciplinar de Pesquisa em Superligas no Brasil (Projeto Pró-Engenharias - CAPES), que tem como objetivo o desenvolvimento técnico e científico do Brasil nesta classe de materiais. A rede é composta por especialistas de estabelecida competência em assuntos fundamentais para o desenvolvimento de materiais estruturais, tais como: fusão em vácuo, solidificação direcional, relações orientação-propriedade, tratamentos térmicos, fluência, fadiga em alta temperatura, oxidação e corrosão a quente. Assim, na parte que compete a este pesquisador, foram estudadas as propriedades de fadiga em altas temperaturas da liga MAR-M247 e de uma nova liga, a liga MAR-M247 modificada pela substituição do Ta pelo Nb, e sendo doravante denominada MAR-M247(Nb). Foram desenvolvidos estudos correlacionando parâmetros intrínsecos do material, como composição química e microestrutura adicionalmente a parâmetros extrínsecos, tais como: temperatura, estudo de oxidação, propriedades de fadiga, ensaios de tração em temperatura ambiente, 250, 500, 700, 800, 900 e 1000ºC, conforme as normas AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING AND MATERIALS (ASTM) E 8M-00 e ASTM E 21-00. Em relação aos ensaios de fadiga foram realizados ensaios de nucleação de trincas , conforme a norma ASTM E466-07 e os resultados foram apresentados na forma de curvas S-N e analisados estatisticamente segunda a norma ASTM E739-10. Para auxiliar na definição dos micromecanismos de fadiga, as superfícies de fratura foram analisadas utilizando o microscópio eletrônico de varredura (MEV) e microscópio ótico estereoscópico (MO). Foi realizado ensaio de oxidação para verificar a susceptibilidade a oxidação das ligas, sendo este um dos fatores que afetam a vida em fadiga em alta temperatura. / This project is part of an interdisciplinary network of Research in Super League in Brazil (Project Pro-Engineering - CAPES), which aims to technical and scientific development of Brazil in this class of materials. The network is composed of experts of established competence in matters fundamental to the development of structural materials, such as: vacuum melting, directional solidification, relationships property-oriented, heat treatment, creep, fatigue in high temperature oxidation and hot corrosion. Thus, at the racing this researcher, were studied the fatigue properties at high temperatures MAR-M247 alloy and a new league, which in reality is the MAR-M247 alloy modified by replacing the Ta by Nb, and being hereinafter referred to as MAR-M247 (Nb). Were designed studies correlating parameters intrinsic material, such as chemical composition and microstructure, with extrinsic parameters such as: temperature and type of loading, with the properties fatigue. Thus, tensile tests at room temperature environment, 250, 500, 700 and 900ºC, and tests for compression at temperatures of 700 and 900ºC were performed to determine the elastic behavior and elastoplastic material, according to the ASTM E-8M 00, ASTM E 21-00 and ASTM E209-00. Were also conducted testing of fatigue crack nucleation, as ASTM E466-07. The results were presented at form of SN curves and statistically analyzed the second ASTM E739-10. To assist in the definition of micromechanics of fatigue, the fracture surfaces were examined in a scanning electron microscope (SEM) and stereoscopic optical microscope (OM). Was oxidation test performed to check susceptibility to oxidation of the alloy, which is the factor affecting the fatigue life.

Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is a new solid-state welding process that shows great promise for use in the aerospace and transportation industries. One of the primary benefits of this process is that mechanical properties of the base material are not as severely degraded as they are with conventional fusion welding. However, fatigue crack initiation and growth properties of the resulting weld nugget are not fully understood at this time. The primary goal of this project is to characterize the fatigue crack growth properties of friction stir welds in 6061-T6 aluminum as relates to the microstructural evolution of the weld. This was accomplished by producing friction stir welds and testing fatigue crack growth response in different crack orientations with respect to the weld. In addition, residual stress measurements were conducted for all cases, using both the crack compliance and contour methods. The results from the methods were compared in order to evaluate the accuracy of each method. Being an immature technology, the potential for discovery of new applications for the FSW process exist. With this in mind, novel applications of the FSW process, including the addition of particles during welding were explored. The first step was the investigation of property changes that occur when secondary cast phases are refined using the FSW process. The FSW process successfully refined all secondary phases in A380 and A356, producing an increase in hardness. Next, methods for the creation of particle metal matrix composites using FSW will be investigated. Nano-scale alumina particles were successfully added to the matrix and homogenously distributed. Using multiple weld passes through the composite was found to increase the uniformity of particle distribution. However, the alumina particle composite failed to provide any statistically significant hardness increase over the base material. The FSW process was also evaluated for weldability of traditionally difficult alloy systems. FSW was found to show very good weldability for dissimilar cast and wrought alloys, as well as for high-pressure die castings. Lastly, the feasibility of friction stir welding/processing in repairing crack defects in complex structural members in combination with cold-spray technology was determined. Friction Stir processing was used on a cold spray 6061-T6 block, resulting in significant increases in hardness over the base material, as well as a reduction in porosity. In addition, FSP was shown to eliminate crack-type defects in cold spray materials, a finding that has important applications in part repair. The deliverables of this work include an understanding of the fatigue crack growth response of FSW/FSP 6061-T6, as well as a feasibility study exploring novel uses for the FSW/FSP process. In addition, the deliverables include CNC code, fixtures, procedures, and analytical code for the creation and analysis of FSW/FSP joints. This will be important for the continuation of FSW/FSP work at WPI.

In an attempt to find a way of improving the damage tolerance of composite bonded repairs to metallic aircraft structures, the effect of using conventional crack growth retardation techniques in conjunction with bonded repairs was experimentally investigated. Hence, an experimental test program was set up to determine whether fatigue crack growth under bonded repairs is retarded further by giving the crack to be repaired a crack growth retardation treatment prior to repair patch application. In addition, it was set up to determine the influence of a bonded repair on the effectiveness of a crack growth retardation method. Centrally cracked aluminium plates were used. Stop drilling followed by cold hole expansion and the application of single overloads were selected as retardation treatments. Two patch materials were considered; boron/epoxy and Glare 2. Further test variables were the aluminium alloy and the plate thickness. Fatigue testing was carried out under constant amplitude loading and baseline results were determined first. In addition to optically monitoring the crack growth, local and global out-of-plane deformations were visualised with holographic interferometry and shadow moire??. Furthermore, the stress intensity factors under the repair patch were examined with strain gauges and measurement of the central crack opening displacement. Disbonds and fracture surfaces were studied after residual strength tests. The crack growth results obtained showed that retardation treatments decrease crack growth rates under a repair patch and that the effectiveness of a retardation treatment is increased by the patch. Although identical crack growth rates were observed under boron/epoxy and Glare 2 patches, the reinitiation period after the retardation treatment lasted longer when Glare 2 patches were applied. Analytical predictions of the extent of retardation based on existing models showed that the conjunctive effect of retardation treatments and bonded repairs was underestimated. A sustained reduction in crack growth rates was observed under bonded repairs with a prior overload retardation treatment. It was concluded that the damage tolerance of bonded repairs is increased by the application of a crack growth retardation treatment because the crack growth is retarded further. These findings indicate that the range of cracks in aircraft for which bonded repairs can be considered is expanded and that economic benefits can be obtained.

Confront with the serious aging problem in aircraft structure field, the profession was tasked to unveil the mysterious in the mechanism of aging. In decades, many endeavours were put into different subjects such as, fatigue and crack calculation, corrosion analysis, reliability evaluation, life prediction, structure monitor and protection, structure repair, etc. In an effort of developing a reasonable model for life prediction and reliability evaluation, a wide range of topics in the field of aging structure reliability are reviewed. Many existing methods and tools are carefully studied to distinguish the advantages, disadvantages and the special application. With consideration of corrosion fatigue life, and based on the data obtained through investigating service status of the aging aircraft, a fuzzy reliability approach is proposed and presented. Initially, the thesis presents the literature review in the field, introducing the well-established theories and analysis tools of reliability and points out how such these methods can be used to assess the life and reliability of aging structure. Meanwhile, some characteristic parameters and distributions, as well as some crucial calculation formulations, procedures for aging aircraft reliability/risk analysis are given. Secondly, mathematical models are established to evaluate the initial crack size and to assess both randomness and fuzziness of the variables, which also successfully work out the probability of survival of existing structures over a time period and predict the operation time under specific reliability requirement. As a practical approach to the reliability of aging aircraft structure, example is presented and evaluated. While conduct the calculation, a few programs based on FORTRAN code are developed to solve the none-linear equation, to work out the multi dimension integration and to simulate the survival probability. The crack life prediction software AFGROW is selected for comparison of the calculation results, which also shows the appropriate accuracy of the established model. As conclusion, the effects of some variables including fuzzy factors on reliability and life of aging aircraft structure are finally discussed. It is apparent that the confines of the model are existing as fact because of the huge assumption of the parameters input and model uncertainties. Suggestions on further prospective research are proposed respectively.

In this licentiate thesis the work done in the TURBO POWER project Influence of high temperature hold times on the fatigue life of nickel-based superalloys will be presented. The overall objective of this project is to develop and evaluate tools for designing against fatigue in gas turbine applications, with special focus on the nickel-based superalloy Inconel 718. Firstly, the constitutive behaviour of the material has been been studied, where focus has been placed on trying to describe the mean stress relaxation and initial softening of the material under intermediate temperatures. Secondly, the fatigue crack propagation behaviour under high temperature hold times has been studied. Focus has here been placed on investigating the main fatigue crack propagation phenomena with the aim of setting up a basis for fatigue crack propagation modelling. This thesis is divided into two parts. The first part describes the general framework, including basic constitutive and fatigue crack propagation behaviour as well as a theoretical background for the constitutive modelling of mean stress relaxation. This framework is then used in the second part, which consists of the four included papers.

It is generally accepted that the fatigue crack growth depends on the stress intensity factor range (ΔK) and the maximum stress intensity factor (K_max). Numerous driving forces were introduced to analyze fatigue crack growth for a wide range of stress ratios. However, it appears that the effect of the crack tip stresses and strains need to be included into the fatigue crack growth analysis as well. Such an approach can be successful as long as the stress intensity factors are correlated with the actual elastic-plastic crack tip stress-strain field. Unfortunately, the correlation between the stress intensity factors and the crack tip stress-strain field is often altered by residual stresses induced by reversed plastic deformations. A two-parameter model (ΔK_tot, K_max,tot) based on the elastic-plastic crack tip stress-strain history has been proposed. The applied stress intensity factors (ΔK_appl, K_max,appl) were modified and converted into the total stress intensity factors (ΔK_tot, K_max,tot) in order to account for the effect of local crack tip stresses and strains on the fatigue crack growth. The fatigue crack growth was regarded as a process of successive crack re-initiations in the crack tip region and predicted by simulating the stress-strain response in the material volume adjacent to the crack tip and estimating the accumulated fatigue damage. The model was developed to predict the mean stress effect for steady-state fatigue crack growth and to determine the fatigue crack growth under simple variable amplitude loading histories. Moreover, the influence of the applied compressive stress on fatigue crack growth can be explained with the proposed two-parameter model. A two-parameter driving force in the form of: Δκ = K_max,tot^p ΔK_tot^(1-p) was derived based on the local stresses and strains at the crack tip using the Smith-Watson-Topper (SWT) fatigue damage parameter: D = σ_maxΔε/2. The parameter p is a function of material cyclic stress-strain properties and varies from 0 to 0.5 depending on the fatigue crack growth rate. The effects of the internal (residual) stress induced by the reversed cyclic plasticity manifested themselves in the change of the resultant (total) stress intensity factors driving the crack. Experimental fatigue crack growth data sets for two aluminum alloys (7075-T6 and 2024-T351), two steel alloys (4340 and 4140), and one titanium alloy (Ti-6Al-4V) were used for the verification of the model under constant amplitude loading. This model was also capable of predicting variable-amplitude fatigue crack growth. Experimental fatigue crack growth data sets after single overloads for the aluminum alloy 7075-T6, steel alloy 4140, and titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V were also used for the verification of the model. The results indicate that the driving force Δκ can successfully predict the stress ratio R effect and also the load-interaction effect on fatigue crack growth.

In this master thesis, work done in the TURBO POWER project High temperature fatigue crack propagation in nickel-based superalloys during spring 2012 will be presented. The overall objective of this project is to develop and evaluate tools for designing against fatigue in gas turbine applications, with special focus on the crack propagation in the nickel-based superalloy Inconel 718. Experiments have been performed to study the effect of initial overloads, and it has been shown that even for small initial overloads a significant reduction of the crack growth rate is received. Furthermore, FE simulations have been carried out in order to describe the local stress state in front of the crack tip since it is believed to control, at least partly the diffusion of oxygen into the crack tip and thus also the hold time crack growth behaviour of the material. Finally, an evaluation method for the stresses is presented, where the results are averaged over an identifiable process/damaged zone in front of the crack tip.

It is generally accepted that the fatigue crack growth depends on the stress intensity factor range (ΔK) and the maximum stress intensity factor (K_max). Numerous driving forces were introduced to analyze fatigue crack growth for a wide range of stress ratios. However, it appears that the effect of the crack tip stresses and strains need to be included into the fatigue crack growth analysis as well. Such an approach can be successful as long as the stress intensity factors are correlated with the actual elastic-plastic crack tip stress-strain field. Unfortunately, the correlation between the stress intensity factors and the crack tip stress-strain field is often altered by residual stresses induced by reversed plastic deformations. A two-parameter model (ΔK_tot, K_max,tot) based on the elastic-plastic crack tip stress-strain history has been proposed. The applied stress intensity factors (ΔK_appl, K_max,appl) were modified and converted into the total stress intensity factors (ΔK_tot, K_max,tot) in order to account for the effect of local crack tip stresses and strains on the fatigue crack growth. The fatigue crack growth was regarded as a process of successive crack re-initiations in the crack tip region and predicted by simulating the stress-strain response in the material volume adjacent to the crack tip and estimating the accumulated fatigue damage. The model was developed to predict the mean stress effect for steady-state fatigue crack growth and to determine the fatigue crack growth under simple variable amplitude loading histories. Moreover, the influence of the applied compressive stress on fatigue crack growth can be explained with the proposed two-parameter model. A two-parameter driving force in the form of: Δκ = K_max,tot^p ΔK_tot^(1-p) was derived based on the local stresses and strains at the crack tip using the Smith-Watson-Topper (SWT) fatigue damage parameter: D = σ_maxΔε/2. The parameter p is a function of material cyclic stress-strain properties and varies from 0 to 0.5 depending on the fatigue crack growth rate. The effects of the internal (residual) stress induced by the reversed cyclic plasticity manifested themselves in the change of the resultant (total) stress intensity factors driving the crack. Experimental fatigue crack growth data sets for two aluminum alloys (7075-T6 and 2024-T351), two steel alloys (4340 and 4140), and one titanium alloy (Ti-6Al-4V) were used for the verification of the model under constant amplitude loading. This model was also capable of predicting variable-amplitude fatigue crack growth. Experimental fatigue crack growth data sets after single overloads for the aluminum alloy 7075-T6, steel alloy 4140, and titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V were also used for the verification of the model. The results indicate that the driving force Δκ can successfully predict the stress ratio R effect and also the load-interaction effect on fatigue crack growth.

Thermally cycling a thin plate of nickel-based superalloy with an intense in-plane thermal gradient, or hot spot, produces thermally induced crack growth not represented by classic thermo-mechanical fatigue (TMF). With the max hot spot temperature at 1093 C (2000 F) of a 1.5 mm thick, 82.55 mm diameter circular plate of B-1900+Hf, annular buckling and bending stresses result during each thermal cycle which drive the crack initiation and propagation. A finite element analysis (FEA) model, using ANSYS 7.1, has been developed which models the buckling and as well as represents the stress intensity at simulated crack lengths upon cool down of each thermal cycle. The model approximates the out-of-plane response at heat-up within 5% error and a difference in the final displacement of 0.185 mm after twelve thermal cycles. Using published da/dN vs. Keff data, the number of cycles needed to grow the crack to the experimental arrest distance is modeled within 1 mm. The number of cycles to this point is within 5 out of 462 in comparison to the experimental test.