Following Chamley, Lucas, Laitner, and Aiyagari, this dissertation continues to explore the answer for the question of zero capital taxation by discussing how taxes on capital income, labor income, and property affect the economy in the context of a vintage capital model where the embodied technology grows exogenously. The government maximizes social welfare by finding the optimal combinations of the three tax rates in the steady state and examines the welfare gain/loss over and after the transitions caused by different types of shocks. The simulation method used here is linear approximation. My results show that in the steady-state economy, given a fixed level of gov- ernment expenditure and a zero property tax rate, the capital-income tax rate that maximizes steady-state utility may be negative, zero, or positive depending on the level of government expenditure. I also find that, for many values of government spending, the highest level of steady-state utility occurs with a subsidy to capital income and a tax on labor income. Finally, I find that when taxes on capital income, labor income, and property are available, capital-income taxes are generally the last resort to finance government expenditures. My results show that in the transitional economy, when tax rates are perma- nently changed and the government expenditure is near zero, the loss of utility over the transition from no taxes to capital subsidies is too large so the idea itself is not utility-enhancing. Secondly, I find that when the government expenditure is low and a positive technology shock occurs, social welfare in the economy without capital-income taxes may perform better in the early phase of the transition but worse in the later phase of the transition than that in the economy without property taxes. How- ever, the situation becomes the opposite as government expenditures increase. In addition, when one tax is allowed to change, a changing labor-income tax may bring more utility over the transition than the other two taxes. Finally, when the govern- ment expenditure is unexpectedly reduced, I find that using property taxes rather than capital-income taxes stimulates consumption and employment more given a higher initial level of government expenditure.

Cette thèse étudie différents aspects de la dynamique des firmes, à la fois de manière théoriqueet empirique. Tous les chapitres utilisent largement différentes bases de données microéconomiquespour tester les prédictions théoriques. Le premier chapitre s’intéresse au premiumde l’innovation, c’est à dire la réaction du salaire des employés d’une entreprise qui augmenteson intensité de R&D et qui devient ainsi plus proche de la frontière technologique. L’évaluationde cette réponse se fait en utilisant une base de donnée sur le salaire de 1% de des travailleursbasés au Royaume-Uni. Le second chapitre s’intéresse à la réponse de l’innovation et de laproductivité des firmes à un choc de demande à l’export, considérant les entreprises françaisesayant au moins un brevet, et utilisant pour cela des bases de données à la fois d’origine fiscaleou provenant des douanes. Enfin le troisième chapitre étudie le rôle des coûts d’ajustementdes facteurs de production, et en particulier de l’immobilier des entreprises, sur la dynamiquede l’emploi des entreprises à la suite d’un choc de productivité. Ce chapitre utilise un largeéchantillon d’entreprise mono établissement française.Pris tous les trois, ces chapitres étudient différentes dimensions de la réponse des firmes à unchoc de demande ou de productivité, que ce soit une réponse en termes d’emploi, de salaire,d’innovation ou de taille. / This thesis studies different aspects of firm dynamics both theoretically and empirically. All chapters extensively rely to large microeconomic dataset that are used to test theoretical predictions.First chapter looks at the innovation premium, that is the response to workers’ wage when their firm increases its R&D intensity and therefore becomes closer to the technological frontier. This response is evaluated using matched employers-employees data with information on the wage of 1% of all UK based workers. Second chapter focuses on the response to an export demand shock to a firm’s innovation and productivity looking at all French firms with at least one patent and using both fiscal and customs micro data. Finally, the third chapter considers the role of factor adjustment costs, especially on corporate real-estate, on firms employment dynamism following a productivity shock. This chapter uses a large sample of single-establishment French firms. Taken together, these three chapters explore different dimension of the response to firms to a demand and/or a productivity shock, either in terms of employment and wage, or in terms of innovation and size.

abstract: The dissertation consists of two essays in misallocation and development. In particular, the essays explore how government policies distort resource allocation across production units, and therefore affect aggregate economic and environmental outcomes. The first chapter studies the aggregate consequences of misallocation in a firm dynamics model with multi-establishment firms. I calibrate my model to the US firm size distribution with respect to both the number of employees and the number of establishments, and use it to study distortions that are correlated with establishment size, or so-called size-dependent distortions to establishments, which are modeled as implicit output taxes. In contrast to previous studies, I find that size-dependent distortions are not more damaging to aggregate productivity and output than size-independent distortions, while the implicit tax revenue approximately summarizes the effects on aggregate output. I also use the model to compare the effects of size-dependent distortions to establishments and to firms, and find that they have different effects on firm size distribution, but have similar effects on aggregate output. The second chapter studies the effects of product market frictions on firm size distribution and their implications for industrial pollution in China. Using a unique micro-level manufacturing census, I find that larger firms generate and emit less pollutants per unit of production. I also provide evidence suggesting the existence of size-dependent product market frictions that disproportionately affect larger firms. Using a model with firms heterogeneous in productivity and an endogenous choice of pollution treatment technology, I show that these frictions result in lower adoption rate of clean technology, higher pollution and lower aggregate output. I use the model to evaluate policies that eliminate size-dependent frictions, and those that increase environmental regulation. Quantitative results show that eliminating size-dependent frictions increases output by 30%. Meanwhile, the fraction of firms using clean technology increases by 27% and aggregate pollution decreases by 20%. In contrast, a regulatory policy which increases the clean technology adoption rate by the same 27%, has no effect on aggregate output and leads to only 10% reduction in aggregate pollution. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Economics 2016

abstract: This dissertation consists of two chapters. Chapter one studies distortionary effects of tax exemption of employer-sponsored health insurance (ESHI) premiums. First, I argue that, in the competitive labor market, tax deductibility of ESHI premiums generates an implicit labor cost subsidy to the employers sponsoring health insurance (HI) which distorts the allocation of labor across employers. Second, I quantify the extent of this misallocation measured as output loss in a general equilibrium model of firm dynamics extended to incorporate tax exemption of ESHI premiums and endogenous provision of HI by the employers. The calibrated model shows that elimination of tax exemption increases aggregate output by 1.73%. About two-thirds of this effect comes from removing the misallocation of labor across existing establishments, and the remaining one-third comes from the increase in the number of operating establishments. Third, I use the model to analyze how tax exemption interacts with the employer mandate of the Affordable Care Act imposing a tax on large employers not sponsoring HI. Quantitative results show that implementing the employer mandate when the tax exemption is present reduces output by 0.13%. Chapter two studies macroeconomic implications of a higher cost of health services faced by the unemployed which arise because 1) workers lose access to ESHI when they leave their jobs and 2) the uninsured face inflated health care prices. First, I provide evidence suggesting that the cost of health services for the privately insured is about 50% lower than for the uninsured. Second, I quantify the effects of higher cost of health services for the unemployed in the Lucas and Prescott (1974) island model extended to allow the workers to pay an extra cost of health services contingent on their employment status. Calibration procedure uses the differences between costs of health services for the privately insured and uninsured inferred from the data as a gap between costs of health services for the employed and unemployed. Quantitative results show that equalizing these costs across workers increases labor productivity by 1.2% and unemployment rate by 1.5 percentage points. The increased unemployment dominates quantitatively leading to a decrease in aggregate output by 0.26%. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Economics 2017

In this dissertation, I study the effect of environmental regulation on firm behavior. In the first chapter, I use a dynamic model to quantify the effects on exit, entry, investment and welfare of different allocation schemes of a cap-and-trade program. I focus on allocation rules regarding closing plants and new entrants. I calibrate the model with data from the US power plants and perform two policy experiments: first I quantify the effects of the introduction of a cap-and-trade program; second, I do a counterfactual where I switch the allocation rule and study the effect on the new equilibrium and welfare. In the second chapter of this dissertation, I ask whether multinational firms are harmful for a host country environment. I use plant-level data from Chile and find empirical evidence that multinational are cleaner than domestic plants. Based on the trade literature, I build a model where I add environmental regulation and a technology choice. The model proposes a new explanation of why multinationals firms might be cleaner than their domestic peers. I get policy implications from the model and test them with the data. In the third chapter, I study the relation between free permit allocation in a cap-and-trade program and financial constraints. I use the change in the permit prices and the heterogeneity in permit allocation to identify financial constraints for the investor-owned utilities in the electricity sector. / text

This thesis is a study of firm dynamics, family ownership, and employment protection. It addresses the implications of employment protection on firm productivity and how family owned firms react differently with regard to economic shocks. It also investigates whether family ownership matters for the probability of exhibiting high growth. By using a novel data identification strategy, family ownership is identified in full population register data. The thesis also highlights some important caveats in the official statistics on self-employment. / Denna avhandling behandlar företagsdynamik, familjeägande och anställningsskydd. I avhandlingen analyseras anställningsskyddet och hur det påverkar företagens produktivitet, samt hur familjeägda företag reagerar på chocker inom industrin. I avhandlingen analyseras också hur familjeägande påverkar sannolikheten för ett företag att uppnå en hög tillväxttakt. Genom att kombinera olika statistikkällor kan samtliga familjeföretag i den den svenska företagspopulationen identifieras. Avhandlingen belyser också några av de problem som finns i den officiella statistiken över egenföretagare.

La thèse est composée de trois articles de recherche. Basés sur le même fondement théorique et de modélisation, au travers de simulation numérique, les trois essais étudient différents sujets liés à la dynamique des firmes sous l’impact des contraintes financières et des fluctuations macroéconomiques. Respectivement, le premier article explore le mécanisme de sélection de marché, le deuxième se focalise sur le mode d’investissement en Recherche et Développement (R&D) des firmes, et le troisième analyse les effets d’une politique budgétaire discrétionnaire de relance de l’activité sur la dynamique des firmes. Les résultats de recherche montrent que la combinaison des contraintes financières et des fluctuations macroéconomiques peut exercer des effets significatifs sur la dynamique des firmes dans un contexte de compétition de marché. Sous différents angles d’analyse, ces effets peuvent révéler l’inefficacité du mécanisme de sélection de marché, la distorsion de structure de marché à la défaveur des investissements en R&D, et des retombées inégalitaires d’une éventuelle relance économique en période de récession, au désavantage des jeunes et petites firmes. / The thesis is composed of three research articles. Based on a common theoretical and modeling foundation, by means of computational simulation, these three essays study different subjects relating to firm dynamics under the impact of financial constraints and macroeconomic fluctuations. Respectively, the first article explores functioning of market selection mechanism, the second focuses on firms’ Research and Development (R&D) investment patterns, the third analyzes effects of economic stimulus policies on firm dynamics. The research results demonstrate that the combination of presence of financial constraints and macroeconomic fluctuations may have significant effects on firm dynamics in the context of competitive market. From different angles of analysis, the effects could reveal failure of market selection mechanism, market structure distortion which disfavors firms’ R&D investment, and unequal repercussions of an economic stimulus on firms in recession, especially to the disadvantage of young and small ones.

Abstract Standard macroeconomic models based on a representative firm ignore firm entry and exit. Therefore, these models miss a potentially significant channel of economic interactions through the firm dynamics. This doctoral thesis examines the role of firm dynamics in the economy through four essays. The first essay examines the impact of monetary policy on firm entry. The essay finds that substantial inertia exists in the firm entry process. Based on the empirical evidence on firm dynamics, the second essay develops a real business cycle model in which firm entry is endogenous and default rates are stochastic. The essay studies how default shocks affect the economy. We concentrate on the stochastic properties of the model and show that the stochastic default rate is a potential explanation for the observed low correlation between labor productivity and hours worked. The third essay contributes to the previous literature by studying how endogenous exit rates affect business cycle dynamics in an economy subject to technology and money supply shocks. The fourth essay concentrates on the impact of exchange rate shocks on competition and import prices. The paper finds weak evidence that the changes in competition after a currency devaluation increase import prices. However, this effect occurs only in the long run (i.e., one year after the shock), and its magnitude varies greatly across countries. / Tiivistelmä Tässä väitöskirjassa tutkitaan yritysten markkinoilletulon ja markkinoilta poistumisen vaikutuksia talouden dynamiikkaan. Väitöskirja koostuu neljästä erillisestä esseestä. Ensimmäisessä esseessä tutkitaan rahapolitiikan vaikutusta yritysten markkinoilletuloon. Siinä löydetään yritysten syntymiseen liittyviä kustannuksia, jotka hidastavat koko talouden sopeutumista rahapoliittiseen sokkiin. Toisessa esseessä tutkitaan stokastisen yritysten markkinoilta poistumisen vaikutuksia makrotaloudellisiin muuttujiin. Havaitaan, että yritysten poistuminen markkinoilta on mahdollinen selitys aikaisemmassa kirjallisuudessa todettuun työn tuottavuuden ja tehtyjen työtuntien väliseen alhaiseen korrelaatioon. Kolmannessa esseessä endogenisoidaan yritysten poistuminen markkinoilta ja tutkitaan teknologian ja rahapolitiikan sokkien vaikutusta yritysten konkurssien määrään. Neljännessä esseessä puolestaan tutkitaan, miten valuuttakurssimuutokset vaikuttavat ulkomaisten yritysten markkinoilletuloon ja hinnoitteluun. Esseessä löydetään heikkoja todisteita siitä, että valuuttadevalvaation jälkeinen ulkomaisen kilpailun muutos nostaa tuontihintoja. Tämä vaikutus ilmenee kuitenkin vasta yli vuoden kuluttua sokista, ja sen suuruus vaihtelee suuresti maittain.

abstract: This thesis consists of three projects employing complexity economics methods to explore firm dynamics. The first is the Firm Ecosystem Model, which addresses the institutional conditions of capital access and entrenched competitive advantage. Larger firms will be more competitive than smaller firms due to efficiencies of scale, but the persistence of larger firms is also supported institutionally through mechanisms such as tax policy, capital access mechanisms and industry-favorable legislation. At the same time, evidence suggests that small firms innovate more than larger firms, and an aggressive firm-as-value perspective incentivizes early investment in new firms in an attempt to capture that value. The Ecological Firm Model explores the effects of the differences in innovation and investment patterns and persistence rates between large and small firms. The second project is the Structural Inertia Model, which is intended to build theory around why larger firms may be less successful in capturing new marketshare than smaller firms, as well as to advance fitness landscape methods. The model explores the possibility that firms with larger scopes may be less effective in mitigating the costs of cooperation because conditions may arise that cause intrafirm conflicts. The model is implemented on structured fitness landscapes derived using the maximal order of interaction (NM) formulation and described using local optima networks (LONs), thus integrating these novel techniques. Finally, firm dynamics can serve as a proxy for the ease at which people can voluntarily enter into the legal cooperative agreements that constitute firms. The third project, the Emergent Firm model, is an exploration of how this dynamic of voluntary association may be affected by differing capital institutions, and explores the macroeconomic implications of the economies that emerge out of the various resulting firm populations. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Applied Mathematics for the Life and Social Sciences 2018

[pt] Esta tese contém três ensaios sobre dinâmica de firmas. O primeiro ensaio avalia os efeitos de choques de oferta e demanda sobre a dinâmica de firmas e seleção no Brasil. Exploramos o fato de que o crescimento recente da China não apenas aumentou o nível de competição via importações, mas também aumentou a demanda por exportações de bens primários, um fator especialmente relevante para países em desenvolvimento. Nossos resultados mostram que firmas afetadas pelo aumento de competição proveniente de importações chinesas apresentam um aumento na probabilidade de sair do mercado, enquanto firmas em indústrias beneficiadas pela demanda por exportações para a China têm uma menor probabilidade de saída. Em ambos os casos, esses efeitos estão concentrados em firmas com um menor número de trabalhadores. O segundo ensaio descreve a relação entre a má alocação de energia e a má alocação de recursos no setor de manufaturas brasileiro, e quantifica em que medida distorções que afetam o uso eficiente de energia resultam em perdas de produto agregado. Nós encontramos que as duas medidas de má alocação são positivamente relacionadas nos setores, sugerindo que a energia é um importante componente da eficiência alocativa de recursos. Nós mostramos que a realocação de recursos entre firmas de um mesmo setor levaria a ganhos agregados significativos. Entretanto, distorções de capital são responsáveis pela maior parte dos ganhos potenciais pela realocação de recursos. O terceiro ensaio compara a dinâmica do ciclo de vida em manufaturas e serviços e encontra que o crescimento ao longo do ciclo de vida é menor para firmas do setor de serviços, mesmo controlando pelo seu tamanho inicial. Nós mostramos que esse menor crescimento ocorre devido ao padrão de seleção e à fraca relação existente entre produtividade e tamanho das firmas em serviços. Finalmente, nós investigamos o papel de duas possíveis explicações para os resultados encontrados: distorções relacionadas ao ciclo de vida e custos de monitoramento. / [en] This thesis consists of three essays on firm dynamics. The first essay evaluates the effects of supply and demand shocks on firm dynamics and selection in Brazil. We explore the fact that China’s recent growth has led not only to an increase in import competition, but also to higher export demand for commodities, which is especially relevant in developing countries. We find that firms facing greater competition from Chinese imports suffer from an increase in exit probability, while firms in industries benefiting from increased export demand have lower probability of exit. In both cases, these effects are concentrated among smaller firms. In the second article, we describe the relationship between energy misallocation and resource misallocation across manufacturing industries in Brazil, and quantify the extent to which distortions affecting energy use result in output losses at the aggregate level. We find that these two measures of misallocation are positively related across industries, which suggests that energy is an important component of resource allocation efficiency. We show that reallocating resources between firms would result in substantial aggregate output gains. However, capital distortions account for most of the potential gains in manufacturing from reallocating resources between firms. The third essay compares firm life cycle dynamics in manufacturing and services, and finds that life-cycle growth is slower for service firms, even when controlling for initial size. We show that this result arises because of the selection pattern and weaker relationship between productivity and size in service industries. Finally, we assess the role of two potential explanations for these results: age-related distortions and monitoring costs.