Thesis (MTech (Chemical Engineering))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2017. / One of the very promising synthetic fuel production strategies is the Fischer-Tropsch process, founded on the Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis, which owes its discovery to the namesake researchers Franz Fischer and Hans Tropsch. The Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis (FTS) converts via complex polymerisation reaction a mixture of CO and H2 over transition metal catalysts to a complex mixture of hydrocarbons and oxygen containing compounds with water as major by-product. The mixture of CO and H2 (termed syngas) may be obtained by partial oxidation of carbon containing base feedstocks such as coal, biomass or natural gas via gasification or reforming. The Fischer-Tropsch (FT) process thus presents the opportunity to convert carbon containing feedstocks to liquid fuels, chemicals or hydrocarbon waxes, which makes, for instance, the monetisation of stranded gas or associated gas a possibility. The FT-process is typically carried out in two modes of operation: low temperature Fischer-Tropsch (LTFT) and high temperature Fischer-Tropsch (HTFT). LTFT is normally operated at temperatures of 200 – 250 °C and pressures of 10 – 45 bar to target production of high molecular weight hydrocarbons, while HTFT is operated at 300 – 350 °C and 25 bar to target gasoline production. The catalytically active metals currently used commercially are iron and cobalt, since product selectivity over nickel is almost exclusively to methane and ruthenium is highly expensive in addition to requiring very high pressures to perform optimally. Fe is much cheaper, but tends to deactivate more rapidly than Co due to oxidation in the presence of high H2O partial pressures. One of the major drawbacks to using Fe as FT catalyst is the requirement of lower per pass conversion which necessitates tail gas recycle to extend catalyst life and attain acceptable overall conversions. A more active or similarly active but more stable Fe-catalyst would thus be advantageous. For this reason promotion of a self-prepared typical LTFT Fe-catalyst with Ru was investigated. A precipitated K-promoted Fe-catalyst was prepared by combination of co-precipitation and incipient wetness impregnation and a ruthenium containing catalyst prepared from this by impregnation with Ru3(CO)12. The catalysts, which had a target composition of 100 Fe/30 Al2O3/5 K and 100 Fe/30 Al2O3/5 K/3 Ru, were characterised using XRD, SEMEDX, ICP-OES, TPR and BET N2-physisorption, before testing at LTFT conditions of 250 °C and 20 bar in a continuously stirred slurry phase reactor.

Iron Fischer-Tropsch (FT) catalysts are typically prepared as iron oxides which are reduced to FT-active iron metal and iron carbide prior to FT synthesis. The iron oxides contain a variety of different chemical and structural promoters to alter FT-activity. Silica is a common structural promoter which stabilises the formation of small crystallites and provides mechanical integrity to the catalyst. However, silica inhibits the reduction of the oxide precursor to the FT-active phases. This ultimately affects catalyst activity and product selectivity. It has been proposed that the silica interacts with the iron to form encapsulating shells of fayalite (Fe2SiO4), or fayalite rafts between the iron oxide and the silica support. In this study, six silica-promoted iron oxide samples were prepared using a simple co-precipitation technique. Samples contain varying amounts of silica, and the samples are named 100/x Fe/SiO2, where x is the weight of silica for 100 weight iron, with x taking on values of 0, 10, 25, 50, 100 and 200. The resulting iron oxides were characterised using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD), M¨ossbauer spectroscopy (MS), magnetic susceptibility measurements (MM), Raman spectroscopy, thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA) and nitrogen physisorption. Their reduction in a hydrogen atmosphere was investigated using temperature programmed reduction (TPR), in situ XRPD and TEM. The reduction in hydrogen of 100/0 Fe/SiO2 and 100/10 Fe/SiO2 was also studied using in situ gas flow TEM cells. These cells allow the samples to be studied in the electron microscope at temperature and pressure conditions approaching those experienced in a real reactor environment. In the absence of a silica promoter (100/0 Fe/SiO2), hematite particles are formed with mean particle diameters of 39 ± 12 and 52.7 ± 0.2 nm determined using TEM and XRPD respectively. MM data reveals a magnetic transition (Morin transition) at≈230 K, consistent with a mean particle size of≈50 nm. In a hydrogen atmosphere, the hematite reduces to metallic iron via a two-step process viz. hematite → magnetite → iron. The final iron particles have an average crystallite size of 68.0 ± 0.2 nm. The presence of lower amounts of silica in the samples 100/10 Fe/SiO2, 100/25 Fe/SiO2 and 100/50 Fe/SiO2 results in the formation of silicasubstituted 2-line ferrihydrite particles. Bands in the Raman spectra of these samples shift on increasing silica content, which indicates an increasing number of Fe-O-Si bonds within the ferrihydrite framework. MM reveals typical superparamagnetic (SPM) behaviour above a blocking temperature in the range 39 - 68 K which gives mean particle sizes of 4.2, 3.6 and 3.5 nm for 100/10 Fe/SiO2, 100/25 Fe/SiO2 and 100/50 Fe/SiO2 respectively, in good agreement with particle sizes determined using TEM (3.1±0.4, 2.4±0.3 and 2.4±0.3 nm respectively). MS data at 300 K and 4.2 K were fitted with distributions of ∆EQ and Bhf respectively. The median values of Bhf decrease with increasing silica content, indicating greater degrees of distortion in the Fe3+ environments induced by increased silica substitution. The reduction to metallic iron occurs via a three-step process viz. hematite → magnetite → wu¨stite → iron, with the silica stabilising the wu¨stite phase. The increasing amount of Fe-O-Si bonds on increasing silica content shifts reduction to higher temperatures broadens each reduction step as a result of local Fe-O-Si concentration variations. Fractions of each sample are not completely reduced even at 1000°C, with the relative proportion increasing with increasing silica content. In situ gas flow TEM studies reveal that the mechanism of reduction involves the liberation of atomic iron atoms from the silica-substituted iron oxides which agglomerate and grow into final iron particles. This leaves a poorly crystalline Fe-O-Si bonded framework behind. STEM-EDS and STEM-EELS reveal low concentrations of silicon at the surface of the resulting iron particles, however they do not form encapsulating shells of fayalite as previously suggested. The majority of the silica remains in the Fe-O-Si material which may crystallise into separate fayalite particles at elevated temperature. The presence of silica in high proportions (100/100 Fe/SiO2 and 100/200 Fe/SiO2) results in the formation of a two-phase system consisting of silicasubstituted 2-line ferrihydrite particles which are encapsulated in an ironinfused amorphous silica network. As with the other silica-bearing samples, there is an increase in Fe-O-Si bonds and an increase in the degree of distortion at Fe3+ sites with increasing silica content. The large amount of silica suppresses the blocking temperature of the SPM crystallites. In a hydrogen atmosphere, the reduction to metallic iron follows the same three step process as the other silica-bearing samples. Reduction temperatures are further shifted to higher values and given reduction steps are considerably broader with increasing silica content. The fraction of iron not fully reduced also increases. Iron particle diameters are very small, since encapsulation by the silica matrix prevents growth of particles.

Iron carbides are amongst the crystalline phases formed during Fischer-Tropsch synthesis to produce hydrocarbons (Dry, 1990, Niemantsverdriet et al., 1980), using iron catalysts. The small crystallite size of the iron carbides causes peak broadening in XRD and prevented complete structure determinations in the past (Hagg, 1931; Retief, 1999; Senateur et al., 1962). Fortunately new instrumentation and techniques, such as fast powder X-ray diffractometers and software for structure determination, are now available to study crystal structures. Five different iron carbide phases are known to form during Fischer-Tropsch synthesis i.e. Hägg carbide (χ-Fe5C2), pseudo-hexagonal iron carbide (έ- Fe2.2C), hexagonal iron carbide (ε-Fe3C), Eckström-Adcock iron carbide (Fe7C3) and cementite (θ-Fe3C). Since the structure of cementite θ-Fe3C is well-known (Westgren & Phragmen, 1922) this study focused on the remainder, i.e. the determination of the crystal structures of the first four iron carbides: Hägg carbide (χ-Fe5C2), pseudo-hexagonal iron carbide (έ -Fe2.2C), hexagonal iron carbide (ε-Fe3C) and Eckström-Adcock iron carbide (Fe7C3). This study consisted of the preparation of iron carbides, structure determinations of these iron carbides, determination of reactions of the iron carbides during Fischer-Tropsch synthesis (FTS) (in situ XRD) and the stability of Hägg carbide (χ-Fe5C2) during FTS under commercial fixed bed reactor conditions. Time-temperature-transformation graphs were determined for iron catalysts with and without potassium promoter. The first step in the structure determination process was the preparation of almost pure samples. Samples of Hagg carbide (:t-FesC2), pseudo-hexagonal 8 -Fe22C iron carbide and hexagonal 1::-Fe3C iron carbide were prepared as pure as possible using the Anton Paar XRK600 reaction chamber attached to an X'Pert Pro multi-purpose diffractometer (N!PD). Eckstrom-Adcock iron carbide (Fe7C3) was available in spent catalyst from a fluidized-bed hydrocarbon synthesis plant at SASOL. These samples were characterized using room temperature and low temperature (77 K) Moss bauer absorption spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM, Philips CM200). Thermo-gravimetric analysis and conductivity measurements were done to characterize the carbonaceous species in the samples. Molecular modelling calculations were done using CASTEP (N!ilman et al., 2000; Payne et al., 1992) to determine the total lattice energies of the iron carbide structures.... / Prof. G.J. Kruger Prof. J.P.R. de Villiers

The global community has accepted Fischer Tropsch synthesis as one of the sustainable pathways to transportation fuels and chemicals due to the ever-depleting reserves of fossil fuels and its detrimental impact on the environment. However, the high capital investment and operating expenses associated with this technology have hampered its ability to compete with conventional petrochemicals. Some of the operating costs emanate from the choice of catalyst precursors and operational problems, which could lead to plant shutdowns. In recent times, few efforts have been made to explore cheaper FT catalysts to reduce operational costs, but the mechanical strength of solid FT catalysts, especially for pilot-scale fixed bed operations is not well represented in open literature. As a result, there is a high prevalence of mechanical failure of solid FT catalysts in pilot fixed-bed applications. In this study, we propose a scalable, Fischer Tropsch iron ore catalyst that is mechanically suited for fixed bed reactors to help address this issue. The catalyst development of the proposed iron ore catalyst involved the slurry phase impregnation of the precursor with copper and potassium and then shaping into spherical pellets with mass additions of 10%, 15% and 20% of bentonite(binder) on a rotating drum. There afterwards, the mechanical strength of each pelletized catalyst was tested using the single pellet crushing testing method (ASTM D 4179). These results were compared to the crushing strength of commercial spherical alumina to ascertain their suitability for fixed bed reactors. The most robust solid catalyst was the 10% binder iron ore pellets which recorded a single pellet crushing strength of 1833 kPa and was more than three times that of commercial spherical alumina and thus deemed apt for fixed bed reactors. A unique statistical approach was used to study the mechanical strength of the various binder combinations due to scattering in single pellet crushing strength data. The analysis revealed that the 10% binder iron ore pellets were most suited for laboratory FT runs and thus was tested for its catalytic performance. The FT runs revealed that the 10% binder iron ore catalyst had a CO conversion of 72.1 % and comparable to other similar iron-based FT catalysts reported in the literature. The proposed catalyst also showed a CH5+ selectivity of 83.2%, which was comparable the ones reported by other researchers. These findings provide a simple and cost- effect approach to upscale laboratory-scale FT catalyst designs to pre-emp its performance in pilot or industrial scenarios. / Civil and Chemical Engineering / M. Tech. (Chemical Engineering)

Several self-supported and metal oxide supported cobalt Fisher-Tropsch (FT) catalysts were prepared applying incipient wetness impregnation method. The catalysts were characterized by TPR, adsorption-desorption, XRD, TEM and SEM. The gas products were characterized by GC. The effect of support was investigated. The selfsupported 3D ordered macro-porous (3DOM) Fe-Co and self-supported 2D ordered mesoporous catalyst showed low or no activity under typical F-T reaction conditions. The 3DOM Al2O3 supported cobalt catalyst showed much higher CO conversion and C4+ selectivity than conventional Co/Gamma-Al2O3 catalyst. However, the 3DOM Co/Al2O3 prepared by incorporated method showed no activity. The supported Co/SBA-15 performed better CO conversion than the conventional Co/SiO2. The effects of temperature and time on 3DOM Co/Al2O3 and Co/SBA-15 system were coherent with traditional catalysts. The well-defined structure of 3DOM Al2O3 and SBA-15 may favor to the selectivity of C4+ hydrocarbons product.

Pretende-se estudar um caminho alternativo para a obtenção de biocombustíveis sintéticos, para uso veicular, utilizando-se para tal a rota tecnológica conhecida como Biomass-to-Liquids (BTL) que consiste na utilização da síntese Fischer-Tropsch para a construção de cadeias de hidrocarbonetos a partir de unidades monoméricas obtidas de uma mistura gasosa majoritariamente formada por monóxido de carbono (CO) e hidrogênio (H), conhecida como syngas quando proveniente de fontes energéticas fósseis como o carvão mineral ou o gás natural ou também biosyngas quando proveniente de matéria-prima carbonada renovável, como é o caso da biomassa. O presente trabalho visa abordar o começo dessa cadeia produtiva ao introduzir um conceito para biomassa e os meios para obtenção do biosyngas através do processo conhecido como gaseificação; é feita uma menção à obtenção bem sucedida de biosyngas nas dependências do Instituto de Pesquisas Tecnológicas (IPT) de São Paulo. Segue-se com a utilização desse insumo na síntese Fischer-Tropsch largamente utilizada ao longo do século XX em países específicos para abastecimento da frota veicular local onde seu princípio fundamental é introduzido, assim como os principais mecanismos de formação de cadeias de hidrocarbonetos de diferentes pesos moleculares permitindo assim a obtenção de gasolina e óleo diesel. Essa dissertação apresenta conceitos para a palavra combustível, da mesma forma que introduz os combustíveis fósseis, seus importantes derivados e suas propriedades gerais para que seja possível, adiante, utilizá-los como comparativo com os biocombustíveis sintéticos; é apresentada a evolução histórica dessa tecnologia e são também abordadas a primeira e segunda gerações de biocombustíveis, para se trazer dados que indiquem as vantagens do óleo diesel Fischer-Tropsch quando comparado com seu equivalente oriundo da petroquímica convencional e por fim demonstrar sua superior qualidade sócio-ambiental como biocombustível sintético para o futuro da matriz energética mundial. / What is supposed to be on board of this study consists in an alternative way focused on vehicular use synthetic fuels obtaining, using as main process the technological route known as Biomass-to-Liquids (BTL), which one consists on Fischer-Tropsch synthesis use for hydrocarbons chain building starting from monomer units obtained from a gas mixture made up mostly by carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H), known as syngas from fossil energy sources such as coal or natural gas or also biosyngas from carbonaceous renewable raw materials, such as biomass. This paper aims to address the beginning of the production chain in order to introduce a concept for biomass and the biosyngas obtaining means through the process known as gasification, a reference is made to a successful biosyngas obtaining the dependencies at the Institute for Technological Research (IPT) from Sao Paulo. Then there is the use of that input in the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis widely used throughout the twentieth century, in specific countries, to supply the local vehicle fleet where its basic principle is introduced, as well as the main hydrocarbons chain formation mechanisms thus different molecular weights providing gasoline and diesel oil. This essay presents concepts for the word fuel, the same way that makes it for fossil fuels, their major products and their properties in order to use them as a comparison standard for synthetic biofuels, it was also presented the historical development of this technology and first and second generation of biofuels, in order to bring evidence to suggest the benefits of the Fischer-Tropsch diesel fuel once compared to its conventional equivalent come from the petrochemical and finally to demonstrate it as a socio-environmentally superior quality synthetic biofuel for the future of global energy matrix.

Neste trabalho, foram investigados diferentes catalisadores à base de ferro, desde aspectos relacionados à sua preparação e caracterização até o seu desempenho na Síntese de Fischer-Tropsch. A abordagem incluiu a preparação de diferentes grupos de catalisadores e o estudo do efeito da temperatura de reação, da influência de parâmetros de síntese e do efeito da adição de cobalto e cobre às amostras sobre o seu desempenho catalítico. Os testes foram conduzidos por 6 h em reator tubular de leito fixo, sob pressão de 0,18 MPa, em temperaturas entre 280 e 320°C, carga de 500 mg e vazão de alimentação de 10 mL.min-1 da mistura H2/CO (razão molar 2:1) diluída em 40 mL.min-1 de N2. Além de aumentar a atividade do catalisador, o aumento da temperatura da reação resultou em maior seletividade para CO2, maior razão olefina/parafina, maior formação de coque e menor tendência à formação de produtos mais pesados. Nas condições empregadas, observou-se que a adição de cobre a catalisadores Fe-Si aumenta a área específica e a atividade da reação, mas a tendência à desativação por deposição de coque é elevada e a distribuição dos produtos é prejudicada. Quanto aos parâmetros de síntese, o tempo de cristalização e o agente precipitante pouco influenciaram a performance dos catalisadores, mas esta foi comprometida pelo tratamento térmico em atmosfera estagnada. O estudo dos catalisadores Fe-Al e Mg-Fe mostrou que há uma elevação significativa da área específica e de sua atividade quando há adição de um terceiro metal (cobre e cobalto). Também se verificou um sensível deslocamento para formação de produtos com cadeias carbônicas mais longas e uma diminuição da seletividade a CO2. A ativação com H2 das amostras contendo Co e Cu resultou na sinterização destes metais, sendo o último o mais afetado devido à redução do cobre ocorrer em menor faixa de temperatura, conforme mostrado pelos perfis de TPR. Maiores teores de cobre prejudicaram tanto a seletividade como a atividade dos dois grupos de catalisadores. As amostras do grupo Fe-Al apresentaram distribuição de produtos mais interessante do que as do grupo Mg-Fe e maiores conversões de CO para as amostras auto-ativadas contendo Cu. No entanto, os catalisadores do grupo Fe-Al, por possuírem maior acidez, apresentaram maior tendência à desativação por deposição de coque. O catalisador do tipo Cu-Fe-Al submetido a ciclos de reação-regeneração consecutivos apresentou contínua perda de atividade, associada à sinterização e à oxidação incompleta do coque. O acompanhamento do sinal de O2 durante os ensaios de regeneração sugeriu uma deposição de coque mais pesado para regenerações mais recentes. / Aspects related to preparation, characterization and performance for Fischer- Tropsch synthesis of iron-based catalysts were investigated in this work. The approach included the preparation of different groups of catalysts and the study of the effect of reaction temperature, the influence of synthesis parameters and the effect of adding cobalt and copper to samples over its catalytic performance. Tests were performed for 6 h in a tubular fixed bed reactor on 0.18 MPa, temperature between 280 and 320°C, 500 mg of catalyst and H2/CO (2:1 molar ratio) with a flow rate of 10 mL.min-1 diluted to 40 mL.min-1 N2 stream. In addition to improving catalyst activity, the increase in reaction temperatures resulted in higher selectivity to CO2, higher olefin-to-paraffin ratio, higher coke formation and lower tendency to form heavier products. Under these reaction conditions, the addition of copper to Fe-Si catalysts increased the specific surface area and reaction activity, but enhanced the deactivation tendency due to coke formation and affected the products distribution. Evaluating the synthesis parameters, the crystallization time and the precipitating agent had little influence over catalyst performance, but it was affected by the agent had little influence over catalyst performance, but it was affected by the thermal treatment on stagnant atmosphere. The study of Fe-Al and Mg-Fe catalysts showed a significant increase in specific surface area and in activity when a third metal (copper and cobalt) is added. A significant shift in selectivity towards higher chain length products and a lower selectivity to CO2 were also verified. H2 activation step of Co and Cu-containing samples resulted in sintering of these metals. The effect of sintering appeared to be more severe for Cu-containing catalyst once copper reduces in lower temperature range, as shown in TPR profiles. The increase of copper content had a detrimental effect over selectivity and activity of both catalyst groups. The Fe-Al catalysts showed more interesting product spectra distribution compared to Mg-Fe ones, and showed higher CO conversion for self-activated Cucontaining catalysts. Nevertheless, the Fe-Al group catalysts showed higher deactivation tendency due to coke deposition as they presented stronger acidity. The Cu-Fe-Al type catalyst submitted to consecutive reaction-regeneration cycles showed a continuous loss of activity associated to sintering and incomplete coke oxidation. The monitoring of O2 signal during regeneration tests suggested the formation of a heavier coke for earlier regeneration.

Neste trabalho, foram investigados diferentes catalisadores à base de ferro, desde aspectos relacionados à sua preparação e caracterização até o seu desempenho na Síntese de Fischer-Tropsch. A abordagem incluiu a preparação de diferentes grupos de catalisadores e o estudo do efeito da temperatura de reação, da influência de parâmetros de síntese e do efeito da adição de cobalto e cobre às amostras sobre o seu desempenho catalítico. Os testes foram conduzidos por 6 h em reator tubular de leito fixo, sob pressão de 0,18 MPa, em temperaturas entre 280 e 320°C, carga de 500 mg e vazão de alimentação de 10 mL.min-1 da mistura H2/CO (razão molar 2:1) diluída em 40 mL.min-1 de N2. Além de aumentar a atividade do catalisador, o aumento da temperatura da reação resultou em maior seletividade para CO2, maior razão olefina/parafina, maior formação de coque e menor tendência à formação de produtos mais pesados. Nas condições empregadas, observou-se que a adição de cobre a catalisadores Fe-Si aumenta a área específica e a atividade da reação, mas a tendência à desativação por deposição de coque é elevada e a distribuição dos produtos é prejudicada. Quanto aos parâmetros de síntese, o tempo de cristalização e o agente precipitante pouco influenciaram a performance dos catalisadores, mas esta foi comprometida pelo tratamento térmico em atmosfera estagnada. O estudo dos catalisadores Fe-Al e Mg-Fe mostrou que há uma elevação significativa da área específica e de sua atividade quando há adição de um terceiro metal (cobre e cobalto). Também se verificou um sensível deslocamento para formação de produtos com cadeias carbônicas mais longas e uma diminuição da seletividade a CO2. A ativação com H2 das amostras contendo Co e Cu resultou na sinterização destes metais, sendo o último o mais afetado devido à redução do cobre ocorrer em menor faixa de temperatura, conforme mostrado pelos perfis de TPR. Maiores teores de cobre prejudicaram tanto a seletividade como a atividade dos dois grupos de catalisadores. As amostras do grupo Fe-Al apresentaram distribuição de produtos mais interessante do que as do grupo Mg-Fe e maiores conversões de CO para as amostras auto-ativadas contendo Cu. No entanto, os catalisadores do grupo Fe-Al, por possuírem maior acidez, apresentaram maior tendência à desativação por deposição de coque. O catalisador do tipo Cu-Fe-Al submetido a ciclos de reação-regeneração consecutivos apresentou contínua perda de atividade, associada à sinterização e à oxidação incompleta do coque. O acompanhamento do sinal de O2 durante os ensaios de regeneração sugeriu uma deposição de coque mais pesado para regenerações mais recentes. / Aspects related to preparation, characterization and performance for Fischer- Tropsch synthesis of iron-based catalysts were investigated in this work. The approach included the preparation of different groups of catalysts and the study of the effect of reaction temperature, the influence of synthesis parameters and the effect of adding cobalt and copper to samples over its catalytic performance. Tests were performed for 6 h in a tubular fixed bed reactor on 0.18 MPa, temperature between 280 and 320°C, 500 mg of catalyst and H2/CO (2:1 molar ratio) with a flow rate of 10 mL.min-1 diluted to 40 mL.min-1 N2 stream. In addition to improving catalyst activity, the increase in reaction temperatures resulted in higher selectivity to CO2, higher olefin-to-paraffin ratio, higher coke formation and lower tendency to form heavier products. Under these reaction conditions, the addition of copper to Fe-Si catalysts increased the specific surface area and reaction activity, but enhanced the deactivation tendency due to coke formation and affected the products distribution. Evaluating the synthesis parameters, the crystallization time and the precipitating agent had little influence over catalyst performance, but it was affected by the agent had little influence over catalyst performance, but it was affected by the thermal treatment on stagnant atmosphere. The study of Fe-Al and Mg-Fe catalysts showed a significant increase in specific surface area and in activity when a third metal (copper and cobalt) is added. A significant shift in selectivity towards higher chain length products and a lower selectivity to CO2 were also verified. H2 activation step of Co and Cu-containing samples resulted in sintering of these metals. The effect of sintering appeared to be more severe for Cu-containing catalyst once copper reduces in lower temperature range, as shown in TPR profiles. The increase of copper content had a detrimental effect over selectivity and activity of both catalyst groups. The Fe-Al catalysts showed more interesting product spectra distribution compared to Mg-Fe ones, and showed higher CO conversion for self-activated Cucontaining catalysts. Nevertheless, the Fe-Al group catalysts showed higher deactivation tendency due to coke deposition as they presented stronger acidity. The Cu-Fe-Al type catalyst submitted to consecutive reaction-regeneration cycles showed a continuous loss of activity associated to sintering and incomplete coke oxidation. The monitoring of O2 signal during regeneration tests suggested the formation of a heavier coke for earlier regeneration.

Neste trabalho, foram investigados diferentes catalisadores à base de ferro, desde aspectos relacionados à sua preparação e caracterização até o seu desempenho na Síntese de Fischer-Tropsch. A abordagem incluiu a preparação de diferentes grupos de catalisadores e o estudo do efeito da temperatura de reação, da influência de parâmetros de síntese e do efeito da adição de cobalto e cobre às amostras sobre o seu desempenho catalítico. Os testes foram conduzidos por 6 h em reator tubular de leito fixo, sob pressão de 0,18 MPa, em temperaturas entre 280 e 320°C, carga de 500 mg e vazão de alimentação de 10 mL.min-1 da mistura H2/CO (razão molar 2:1) diluída em 40 mL.min-1 de N2. Além de aumentar a atividade do catalisador, o aumento da temperatura da reação resultou em maior seletividade para CO2, maior razão olefina/parafina, maior formação de coque e menor tendência à formação de produtos mais pesados. Nas condições empregadas, observou-se que a adição de cobre a catalisadores Fe-Si aumenta a área específica e a atividade da reação, mas a tendência à desativação por deposição de coque é elevada e a distribuição dos produtos é prejudicada. Quanto aos parâmetros de síntese, o tempo de cristalização e o agente precipitante pouco influenciaram a performance dos catalisadores, mas esta foi comprometida pelo tratamento térmico em atmosfera estagnada. O estudo dos catalisadores Fe-Al e Mg-Fe mostrou que há uma elevação significativa da área específica e de sua atividade quando há adição de um terceiro metal (cobre e cobalto). Também se verificou um sensível deslocamento para formação de produtos com cadeias carbônicas mais longas e uma diminuição da seletividade a CO2. A ativação com H2 das amostras contendo Co e Cu resultou na sinterização destes metais, sendo o último o mais afetado devido à redução do cobre ocorrer em menor faixa de temperatura, conforme mostrado pelos perfis de TPR. Maiores teores de cobre prejudicaram tanto a seletividade como a atividade dos dois grupos de catalisadores. As amostras do grupo Fe-Al apresentaram distribuição de produtos mais interessante do que as do grupo Mg-Fe e maiores conversões de CO para as amostras auto-ativadas contendo Cu. No entanto, os catalisadores do grupo Fe-Al, por possuírem maior acidez, apresentaram maior tendência à desativação por deposição de coque. O catalisador do tipo Cu-Fe-Al submetido a ciclos de reação-regeneração consecutivos apresentou contínua perda de atividade, associada à sinterização e à oxidação incompleta do coque. O acompanhamento do sinal de O2 durante os ensaios de regeneração sugeriu uma deposição de coque mais pesado para regenerações mais recentes. / Aspects related to preparation, characterization and performance for Fischer- Tropsch synthesis of iron-based catalysts were investigated in this work. The approach included the preparation of different groups of catalysts and the study of the effect of reaction temperature, the influence of synthesis parameters and the effect of adding cobalt and copper to samples over its catalytic performance. Tests were performed for 6 h in a tubular fixed bed reactor on 0.18 MPa, temperature between 280 and 320°C, 500 mg of catalyst and H2/CO (2:1 molar ratio) with a flow rate of 10 mL.min-1 diluted to 40 mL.min-1 N2 stream. In addition to improving catalyst activity, the increase in reaction temperatures resulted in higher selectivity to CO2, higher olefin-to-paraffin ratio, higher coke formation and lower tendency to form heavier products. Under these reaction conditions, the addition of copper to Fe-Si catalysts increased the specific surface area and reaction activity, but enhanced the deactivation tendency due to coke formation and affected the products distribution. Evaluating the synthesis parameters, the crystallization time and the precipitating agent had little influence over catalyst performance, but it was affected by the agent had little influence over catalyst performance, but it was affected by the thermal treatment on stagnant atmosphere. The study of Fe-Al and Mg-Fe catalysts showed a significant increase in specific surface area and in activity when a third metal (copper and cobalt) is added. A significant shift in selectivity towards higher chain length products and a lower selectivity to CO2 were also verified. H2 activation step of Co and Cu-containing samples resulted in sintering of these metals. The effect of sintering appeared to be more severe for Cu-containing catalyst once copper reduces in lower temperature range, as shown in TPR profiles. The increase of copper content had a detrimental effect over selectivity and activity of both catalyst groups. The Fe-Al catalysts showed more interesting product spectra distribution compared to Mg-Fe ones, and showed higher CO conversion for self-activated Cucontaining catalysts. Nevertheless, the Fe-Al group catalysts showed higher deactivation tendency due to coke deposition as they presented stronger acidity. The Cu-Fe-Al type catalyst submitted to consecutive reaction-regeneration cycles showed a continuous loss of activity associated to sintering and incomplete coke oxidation. The monitoring of O2 signal during regeneration tests suggested the formation of a heavier coke for earlier regeneration.

La synthèse de Fischer-Tropsch (SFT) permet la transformation d'un mélange de gaz de synthèse, i.e. H2 et CO, issu des différentes matières premières (charbon, gaz naturel ou biomasse) en hydrocarbures synthétiques. Les catalyseurs généralement utilisés en SFT sont à base de fer ou de cobalt supporté sur alumine ou silice. Dans ce travail, le carbure de silicium (SiC) a été proposé comme nouveau support de remplacement pour la SFT. Les résultats obtenus ont montré que les catalyseurs à base de cobalt supporté sur du SiC, contenant essentiellement des mésopores, sont actifs et sélectifs pour la réaction de SFT par rapport aux catalyseurs traditionnels supportés sur alumine ou silice. L'activité en SFT peut être améliorée en utilisant de l'éthanol comme solvant d'imprégnation ou en ajoutant un promoteur tel que le ruthénium. Le dopage du support de départ par du Ti02 contribue également à une forte augmentation de l'activité en SFT grâce à la formation de petites particules de cobalt présentant une activité en SFT plus élevée. La forte interaction entre le Ti02 et le cobalt permet également d'améliorer d'une manière considérable la stabilité du catalyseur. / The Fischer-Tropsch synthesis (FTS) allows the transformation of a mixture of synthesis gas, i.e. H2 and CO, into valuable liquid hydrocarbons. The catalysts generally used in FTS are based on iron or cobalt supported on alumina or silica. ln the present work, silicon carbide (SiC) has been proposed as a replacement media to traditional supports. The results obtained indicate that the mesoporous SiC containing cobalt catalyst exhibits a good FTS activity and an extremely high selectivity towards liquid hydrocarbons compared to other FTS catalysts supported on alumina or silica. The FTS activity on the Co/SiC catalyst can be improved by changing the impregnation solvent or by promoting the cobalt phase with trace amount of noble metal. The doping of the SiC support with Ti02 phase also significantly improves the FTS activity keeping a similar high selectivity thanks to the formation of small cobalt particles in contact with the Ti02 phase.