Global trends in commercially valuable teleost fisheries point to substantial deterioration in population size, offering limited potential for increased harvests. Consequently a shift in focus towards alternative fisheries has increased fishing effort towards targeting chondrichthyans as a possible solution to meet global demands. The life-history traits of chondrichthyans make them poor candidates for resolving economic and nutritional security as these make them particularly vulnerable to anthromorphic influences. Current fisheries management approaches based on centralized government intervention have proved inadequate. This failure of current management approaches is often linked with poor co-operation by industry with government when collecting fishery-dependent data. As management decisions are based on quantitative estimates from fishery assessment modes data collected are often of poor quality. Co-management with its implied power-sharing arrangement between government and fishing communities has been proposed as a more realistic alternative. The motivation within industry to collect high quality data can only be created with a feeling of ownership. The decline in linefish species in South Africa has led to increased exploitation of demersal sharks such as Mustelus mustelus. Their status as one of the target and by-catch species of South Africa's shark fisheries necessitated resource assessment. Age, growth, maturity and mortality calculations for M mustelus were made from data collected from 1983-2006. The maximum observed age for M mustelus was 25 years. Estimated von Bertalanffy growth parameters from observed length-at-age for combined sexes, females and males were L∞ = 1946.16 mm TL, K = 0.08 year⁻' , to = -3.63 year⁻'; L∞ = 2202.21mm, K = 0.05 year⁻', to = 4.67 years; and L∞ = 1713.19 mm TL, K = 0.08 year⁻' and to = -4.36 years, respectively. Instantaneous total mortality (Z) was estimated at 0.16 y⁻', whilst natural mortality (M) for M mustelus was estimated at 0.05 y⁻'. The age and length at 50% maturity was determined for combined sexes, females and males at 1216 mm TL corresponding to an age of 9.93 years, 1234 mm (TL) and 10.75 years, and 1106 mm TL and 9.1 years respectively. The smoothhound shark resource off the south-eastern and south-western Cape coast was assessed by three dynamic pool models; yield per recruit, spawner biomass per recruit and an extended yield and spawner biomass per recruit. Due to the longevity of elasmobranches the per-recruit model was extended over a 20 year time-frame to simulate resource responses to management options. Fo.1 was estimated as 0.034 year⁻' and F MAX was estimated as 0.045 year⁻'. FsB50 was estimated as 0.031. The extended per-recruit model tested the outcome of different management scenarios, Size and effort control showed the least probability of pristine biomass falling below 20% of current levels in 20 years (where selectivity was set at 3 years). The replacement yield model showed that the average catches over the past decade are 2.5 times higher than the replacement yield is on the South Coast and 1.30 on the West Coast. A more realistic level optimising yield would be at 0.05 with a selection pattern at 3 years, where the probability of the biomass falling to below 20% of pristine pre-exploited levels in twenty years becomes negligible. A comparison of the models showed that current catches need to be halved for exploitation of smoothhound sharks to be sustainable. The results of this study indicate a need for a management intervention for M mustelus in South Africa with regards to potential overexploitation and collection of quality data for further assessments. A demersal identification key was developed as part of this study, which should aid monitoring officials in accurately identifying shark logs for collecting data. This study showed how adopting a management plan with the inclusion of comanagement concepts would improve the quality of data collected and increase monitoring of fishing activities. The inclusion of co-management is possible due to the unique bottle neck created by few demersal shark processing facilities actively exporting shark. A fishery management plan was compiled proposing several management options including size and effort controls.

Global trends in teleost fisheries indicate significant population declines. Thus, alternative fisheries are being developed to meet the growing economic and nutritional demands of the expanding human population. Recently, it has been established that elasmobranch fisheries may fulfill these demands. As many elasmobranchs possess life-history characteristics that make them particularly vulnerable to overfishing, it is imperative to develop management strategies prior to the inception of these fisheries to ensure sustainable resource utilisation. In South Africa, elasmobranchs have been commercially exploited since the 1930s. Although generally considered an under-exploited resource, the potential for growth within these fisheries has been recognized. In 2005, the commercial shark fishery will undergo a transition from medium to long-term rights allocations. This represents an ideal opportunity for scientists and managers to develop precautionary species-specific management plans for commercially exploitable elasmobranch species. The soupfin shark (Galeorhinus galeus) is one of the principal target species in South Africa’s shark fisheries. Given its inherent susceptibility to overexploitation, G. galeus was selected as a management priority by South Africa’s regional fisheries organisation. The purpose of this study was to examine and describe the stock status of G. galeus in South Africa, and to develop a precautionary fishery management plan to ensure the sustainability of this resource. Age, growth, and mortality calculations for G. galeus were made from research survey data collected between 1996 and 1999. A small sample size precluded independent analyses of females. The maximum recorded age for G. galeus was 33 years. Estimated von Bertalanffy growth parameters from observed length-at-age for males and combined sexes were: L∞ 1542.8 mm TL, K 0.21 year⁻¹ , t₀ -2.79 year⁻¹ and L∞ 1560.3 mm TL, K 0.19 year¹, t₀ -3.03 year⁻¹, respectively. The age-at-50% maturity was determined to be 6 years, corresponding to 1011 mm TL for males and 1100 mm TL for combined sexes. Natural mortality was calculated as 0.126 yr⁻¹. The rate of instantaneous total mortality was calculated as 0.27 yr⁻¹. Catch trend analysis showed that catches and CPUE of G. galeus are increasing in the demersal longline fishery, and decreasing in the handline fishery. Decreasing catches and CPUE were observed in fishery-independent research survey data. The status of the soupfin shark stock was modelled using per-recruit analysis. The SB/R model indicated the soupfin shark is being optimally exploited and spawner biomass is at 43% of preexploitation levels. Current fishing levels ( F = 0.14 yr⁻¹) approximate the Fsb₄₀ level (F = 0.17 yr¹); thus, an increase in fishing pressure may lead to stock collapse. It was determined that the current age-at-capture (7.9 years) should be increased to 10 years, or 1420 mm TL, to maximize yield and minimize the possibility of recruitment failure. The results of this study indicate a need for immediate scientific and management intervention in South Africa’s soupfin shark fishery. An assessment report and fishery management plan for G. galeus was compiled, and several management options were proposed. These include the implementation of licence and size restrictions, as well as seasonal/area closures. The potential for an experimental gillnet fishery should be investigated.

The overall aim of this thesis, as required by the funders, was to provide research that would contribute towards the development of a bay management plan, specifically information on the local fisheries. The thesis therefore includes an assessment of the local shore-based linefishery in terms of catch and effort and socio-economics, and the development of indicators from this information with which to assess the sustainability of the fishery. Finally an implementation strategy for an integrated coastal management approach for local resource governance is proposed The shore-based linefishery of Plettenberg Bay was assessed through a combination of roving creel and access point surveys which included questions aimed at the quantification of total effort, total catch and cpue, as well as the spatial trends in catch and effort. Angler demographics as well as opinions and knowledge of current fisheries regulations were obtained and the efficiency of the fishery inspectorate was assessed. The survey period extended from August 2003 to September 2004 during which 1189 angler interviews were conducted. Catch data obtained during this study was compared to catch data gathered during a research tagging program conducted in an area closed to fishing (Tsitsikamma National Park) and a semi-open area (Rebelsrus – Cape St. Francis), thereby highlighting differences in species composition, abundance and size distribution of certain species between areas of differing fishing pressures. The fishery surveys revealed that the shore-based fishery is primarily recreational (99%) and dominated by white males. Most anglers agreed with the current fisheries regulations (60%) and admitted to abiding by them, however when tested on the regulations of their target species, their knowledge was poor. Effort in the fishery was highly seasonal with peaks coinciding with major school holidays. Total annual effort was estimated at 102 566 angler-hours, with distinct spatial patterns in effort. Total annual catch for the Plettenberg Bay shore-based linefishery was estimated at 31 217 fish.year⁻¹ with a total mass of 13.6 tons. Thirty-six fish species (26 teleost species and 10 elasmobranchs species) were identified during the survey period with Blacktail Diplodus capensis, Strepie Sarpa salpa, Red tjor-tjor Pagellus natalensis, Shad Pomatomus saltatrix and Sand steenbras Lithognathus mormyrus being the five most commonly caught species. Only 32% of interviewed anglers were successful in catching a fish with just 22% catching their primary target species. In addition, a large proportion of the anglers (69%) reported a decline in catch rate, with most blaming the commercial sector as a reason for the decline. The overall catch rate was (cpue) 0.374 fish.angler.hour⁻¹ or 170 grams.angler.hour⁻¹, considerably lower than that obtained from the fishery exempt area (TNP = 1. 02 fish.angler.hour⁻¹) and the partially exploited area (Rebelsrus = 0.91 fish.angler.hour⁻¹). In terms of species composition the most obvious difference between the three areas was the low proportion of non-migratory reef-associated species like red roman, poenskop, John brown, santer and bronze bream in Plettenberg Bay. Size comparisons revealed that the majority of species (particularly reef-associated species) were larger in the TNP than both the semi-exploited (Rebelsrus) and exploited area (Plettenberg Bay). Collectively theses findings suggest that certain species have been locally depleted, that recreational fishing has impacted heavily on the fish stocks and that even partial closure or limited access to an area can offer protection. From the results key issues were identified and sustainability indicators proposed according to the three sustainability domains (ecological, institutional and social) proposed by Pajak (2000). Within the ecological domain the most pertinent issue was the low catch rate, particularly for reef-associated species. Indicators to track these issues included: percentage of successful trips (where fish were caught), percentage of anglers that reached their daily bag limits and the proportion of the overall catch that comprised larger, more desirable species. Institutionally the most pertinent issue was the apparent inability of management institutions to manage effectively marine resources within Plettenberg Bay. Indicators within this domain included the proportion of anglers who were inspected, the existence of a localised management plan and an associated monitoring programme. Socially the fishery proved to be fairly sustainable. Indicators included in this domain were the proportion of subsistence anglers in the local fishing community, the percentage of correct answers pertaining to current fishery regulations, the level of noncompliance and the percentage of undersize fish retained. Aggregation of all the indicators within a sustainability matrix revealed that the Plettenberg Bay shore-based linefishery was unsustainable and thus requires increased local management effort. Since there is no local management strategy in place, an integrated coastal management approach for the governance of the coastal resources in Plettenberg Bay has been proposed. The development of a Coastal Management Plan and a subsidiary Bay Management Plan provide the frameworks within which management strategies can be put into operation.

The main objective of this thesis is to provide an analysis of the economic logic behind fisheries policy and redistribution in South African. An examination of the institutional and organizational evolution reveals that South African fisheries policy followed the world trend in the movement toward quota management systems. However, it is argued that due to the peculiarities of the Apartheid political system, South Africa developed a unique and persistent structure of individual fishing rights that resulted in a transfer of power from the fisher to monopsonistic, and subsequently vertically integrated, fish processing companies. Problems, however, arose with the need to redistribute fishing rights to previously repressed racial groups. It is proposed that, within a specific form (TAC), the structure of individual fishing rights can be decomposed into four operational rules, namely, the right of participation, asset size, tradability and duration of term. Policy design is restricted to a feasible set of rules that impact on the flexibility of the system, the incentives facing private fishing companies and fishers, the efficiency of the fisheries management plan and finally the effect it has on a redistribution strategy. Within this analytical framework, South Africa's policy yields a very flexible system favourable to monopsonistic industrial organisation. However, by adding a redistribution constraint, this structure has a number of important effects. First, as new quota holders are added the information costs for effective fisheries management increase exponentially. Second, the transaction costs to private fishing companies are increased. Third, only the resource rent is redistributed (weak redistribution). Next, the micro to small vessel fisheries, the medium vessel fisheries and the large vessel fisheries are examined separately. The major aim is to determine, within the available data, the effect that a weak redistribution policy (redistribution of the resource rent), has on strong redistribution (redistribution of fishing capital and skills). The evidence definitely supports the analytical framework and suggests that fundamentally the structure of individual fishing rights, which evolved in response to a monopsonistic industrial organisation during the apartheid era in South Africa, works against strong redistribution. Also, that different fisheries face different constraints and that these should in certain instances be treated separately.

A new policy incorporating an operational protocol was developed for the establishment of new fisheries in South Africa. The common octopus, Octopus vulgaris was used as a candidate species for the project. The operational protocol consisted of a three-phased development framework, namely information gathering (Phase 0), an experimental fishery (Phase 1) and the final implementation of a commercial fishery (Phase 2). The present study focussed on phase 0 of this theoretical framework and protocol and was implemented by using a proposed octopus pot fishery in South Africa as a case study. Phase 0 included a desktop study, information gathering in the field, an economic feasibility study and the formulation of a Fishery Management Plan and experimental design for the fishery. Information gaps identified during the desktop study were addressed during field investigations into the population structure and biology of O. vulgaris along the southeast coast. Immature females were found to use the intertidal area to feed and grow before migrating to the subtidal area to mature and spawn. Mean size differed substantially between intertidal and subtidal areas, with larger octopus found subtidally. Age and growth trials using tetracycline as a marker showed that O. vulgaris deposit daily growth lines in their beaks. A genetic study showed that there is most likely only one panmitic population along the coast. The economic feasibility study indicated that a longline pot fishery could be feasible provided a 30% catch in 6600 pots/month is attained. Only existing, debt-free vessels should be used in this fishery. The Fishery Management Plan proposed in this study includes management measures such as effort limitation of licences and gear, size restrictions, vessel monitoring systems, and observer programmes. Based on the population dynamics and biology of O. vulgaris it is suggested that a precautionary approach to developing fisheries for this species in both the inter- and subtidal areas along the South African coast.

Approximately 24 alien fish species, equivalent to 9 percent of all South African freshwater fish species, were introduced and established into South African waters during the 19th and 20th Centuries (Skelton, 2001). Of the 24 species introduced, the Rainbow trout and the Brown trout have over time become South Africa's most widely spread and used freshwater fish species (Bainbridge, Alletson, Davies, Lax and Mills, 2005). The National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act, no.10 of 2004 has, however, cast considerable doubt on the future of trout as a food source and a recreational fishing resource in South Africa. More specifically, Section 64 of the Act has the following aims: “(a) to prevent the unauthorized introduction and spread of alien species and invasive species to ecosystems and habitats where they do not naturally occur; (b) to manage and control alien species and invasive species to prevent or minimize harm to the environment and to biodiversity in particular; and (c) to eradicate alien species and invasive species from ecosystems and habitats where they may harm such ecosystems or habitats.” The uncertainty surrounding the future of trout in South Africa is mainly underpinned by aim (c) of Section 64 of the Act. Regarding the eradication of trout and in keeping with aim (c) of Section 64 of the Act, three remarks can be made. First, there exists a paucity of published studies which offer validated proof of the impacts which may be ascribed entirely to the introduction of alien trout in South Africa, since no pre-stocking assessments were conducted (Bainbridge et al., 2005). Second, the elimination of trout is feasible in a few limited closed ecosystems, such as small dams, but is highly impractical and untenable from an environmental and cost perspective where open and established river systems are concerned (Bainbridge et al., x 2005). More specifically, there are no efficient or adequate eradication measures which may be used in wide-ranging open ecosystems, which selectively target alien fish species. Moreover, most, if not all, measures have the potential to cause considerable adverse impacts on indigenous aquafaunal species. Finally, the elimination of trout could undermine the tourism appeal of many upper catchment areas in South Africa. The trout fishing industry is well established and is a source of local and foreign income, as well as a job creator in the South African economy (Bainbridge et al., 2005; Hlatswako, 2000; Rogerson, 2002). In particular, the industry provides a two-tier service: first, in food production at the subsistence as well as commercial levels, and second, as an angling resource. Recreational angling, including fly-fishing for trout, is one of the fastest growing tourism attractions in South Africa. Furthermore, the trout fishing industry is sustained and underpinned by a considerable infrastructure consisting of tackle manufacturers and retailers, tourist operators, professional guides, hotels, lodges and B&Bs. The economic case for the trout fishing industry in South Africa has, however, not been convincingly made. The economic benefit provided by trout and trout fly-fishing is priced directly in the market place by expenditures made by fly-fishers, and indirectly in property values, which provide access to fly-fishing opportunities. The benefit of trout and trout fly-fishing can also be valued through non-market valuation techniques. Non-market valuation is used to calculate values for items that are not traded in markets, such as environmental services. There are several non-market valuation methods available to the researcher, namely those based on revealed preference and those based on stated preference. The former includes the hedonic pricing method and the travel cost method, while the latter includes the contingent valuation method and the choice modelling method. Of the available non-market valuation techniques, the travel cost method is the most suitable method for determining the value of trout and the trout fishing industry because travel cost is often the main expenditure incurred. xi The aim of this study is threefold: first, to value the economic contribution of trout and trout fly-fishing to the Rhodes region, North Eastern Cape; second, to determine the willingness-to-pay for a project that entails the rehabilitation and maintenance of trout streams and rivers in and around Rhodes village so as to increase their trout carrying capacity by 10 percent; third, to determine the willingness-to-pay for a project aimed at eradicating trout from streams and rivers in and around Rhodes village so as to prevent trout from harming the indigenous yellowfish habitat. The first aim was achieved by applying the travel cost method, whereas the second and third aims were achieved by applying the contingent valuation method. The study aimed to provide policy makers with information regarding the value of trout fishing in the Rhodes region, so as to create an awareness of the economic trade-offs associated with alien fish eradication. Through the application of the travel cost method, the consumer surplus per trout fly-fishermen was estimated to be R19 677.69, while the total consumer surplus was estimated to be R13 774 384.40. The median willingness-to-pay for a project to rehabilitate trout habitat was estimated to be R248.95, while the total willingness-to-pay amounted to R199 462.20. The median willingness-to-pay for a project to eradicate alien trout from the Rhodes region rivers and streams was estimated to be R41.18, while the total willingness-to-pay amounted to R28 829.36. This study concludes that trout and trout fly-fishing make a valuable economic contribution to the Rhodes region. The extent of the economic benefit provided by trout and trout fly-fishing services in the Rhodes region should be carefully considered in any stream management project.

Thesis (MBA)--Stellenbosch University, 2001. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Fish and shellfish are, with very few exceptions, generally considered safe. Food safety laws in many parts of the world are, however, requiring companies to implement programs such as Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) as a means of assuring food safety from harvest to consumption. In South Africa, fishing companies wishing to export products to countries such as the European Union (EU), the United Sates (US), et cetera have, over the past number of years, been required to implement HACCP. Various issues are, however at stake with regards to the successful implementation of HACCP and thus this study project is primarily focused on the application of the HACCP system to the white fish industry. The method of study involved consultation with various local authorities in order to highlight existing HACCP problems within the South African White Fish Industry. A literature survey was conducted to ascertain the requirements of various countries and international organisations and iii addition to gain an in-depth knowledge as to theworking requirements of HACCP. Prior to setting in place a HACCP system, the model reviews in detail the HACCP manual requirements and prerequisite programs required. The prerequisite programs are not limited to but include good manufacturing practices, operation and sanitation, pest control, traceability and recall procedures, customer complaint procedures, chemical control program and training. Process flow diagrams need to be developed and verified for each process and product. Once completed an analysis of the various biological, chemical and physical hazards that are likely to affect the safety of the product is conducted. The seven principles of HACCP are clarified together with how they may best be implemented and monitored, taking in to consideration the various parameters of each fish processing establishment. A brief introduction about the relationship between the HACCP system, ISO 9000 and total quality management (TOM) and the advantages and disadvantages of each system is included. The study project is completed with recommendations for further study in other food processing industries. Recommendations include, but are not limited to ensuring that current and new legislation be regularly monitored, HACCP models be developed for industries such as the shellfish industry, et cetera and that, where possible, harmonisation of the requirements be internationally agreed upon. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Oor die algemeen word vis en skulpvis, met 'n paar uitsonderings, as veilig beskou. Internasionaal word daar deur die voedsel veiligheidswette vereis dat maatskappye aan 'n standaard naamlik HACCP ( Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point) voldoen wat verseker dat die voedsel vanaf sy oorspronklike bron tot en met by die verbruiker veilig is vir gebruik. In Suid Afrika, word oor die laaste aantal jare van alle vismaatskappye wat vis wil uitvoer na Europeuse lande of die Verenigde state, verwag om HACCP te implimenteer. Verskeie kwessies is op die spel met betrekking tot die suksesvolle implimentering van HACCP en daarom word hierdie projek gefokus op die suksesvolle implimenteering van die HACCP beginsel in die witvis bedryf. Vir die studie is plaaslike owerhede genader om vas te stel waar bestaande probleme met betrekking tot die witvis bedryf is. 'n Literatuur studie is uitgevoer om te bepaal wat die behoeftes is van verskillende lande en internationale instansies en ook om 'n indiepte kennis te bekom vir die funksionerings vereistes van HACCP. Die model beskryf volledig wat vereis word om 'n HACCP handleiding saam te stel en die voorvereiste programme wat benodig word alvorens 'n HACCP plan inwerking gestel kan word. Daar is geen beperkings ten opsigte van die voorvereiste programme nie maar dit sluit die volgende in: goeie vervaardigings praktyke, higiëne bestuur, plaagbeheer, identifiseering en produk ontrekking prosedure, verbruikersklagtes, chemikalië beheer en opleiding. Vir elke proses en produk moet daar 'n vloei diagram opgestel word. Daarna moet 'n ontleding gedoen word van alle moontlike biologiese, chemiese en fisiese gevare wat die veiligheid van 'n produk kan benadeel. Verder bespreek die studie die sewe beginsels van HACCP, die implimentering en monitering daarvan met inagneming van die uniekheid van elke prosesaanleg. 'n Kort oorsig oor die verwantskap tussen HACCP, ISO 9000 en "TQM ( Total Quality Management)" met elk se voor en nadele word ook bespreek. Die studie word afgesluit met aanbevellings vir verdere studies in die voedselprosesseringsindustrie, oor die monitering van huidige en toekomstige wetgewing, die ontwikkeling van HACCP modelle en harmonisering van internasionale en plaaslike vereistes soos ooreengekom.

The dusky kob, Argyrosomus japonicus, is a popular South African “line fish” whose stocks have dwindled to dangerously low levels of between 1% and 4.5% of pristine spawner biomass per recruit. A. japonicus stocks are currently managed by means of minimum size restrictions and daily bag limits, and as a result of the inability of these measures to facilitate the recovery of the species over a realistic time frame, the need for an alternative management plan has become apparent. Given the status of the stock and management regime, stock enhancement appears to be an appropriate option to be investigated. This study evaluates the feasibility of stock enhancement as a possible management tool to assist with the recovery of this important South African linefish species. By evaluating the genetic and ecological implications related to stock enhancement, identifying a suitable tagging method for post-release monitoring, and evaluating the economic feasibility of such a programme, any fatal flaws would become immediately apparent. This coupled with the required framework for the development of a management plan for stock enhancement of A. japonicus provides direction further research and actions required in order to utilise stock enhancement as a management tool. Due to the nature of stock enhancement, there are several ecological and genetic issues that arise from such a programme. These issues were reviewed and the issues that were relevant to stock enhancement of A. japonicus identified. Ecological concerns that arose included those of competition, disease and seed quality, while genetic issues were concerned mainly in the possible loss of genetic variability and consequent reduction in fitness of the stock. Fortunately the technology exists to evaluate the effects and likelihood of these problems occurring as well as to minimise the likelihood of them occurring. By taking a scientific approach to stock enhancement, hatchery management, and release strategies can be manipulated in such a way as to minimise any negative effects that may be caused. Both ecological and genetic effects of stocking indicate a need for post-release monitoring of stock enhancement programmes. Stock enhancement requires a post-release monitoring programme, which in turn relies on an ability to distinguish between hatchery reared and wild fish. A study was conducted to evaluate the suitability of coded wire tags (CWT), visual implant fluorescent elastomers (VIFE), and oxytetracycline (OTC) as a means of distinguishing between hatchery reared and wild A. japonicus, for the purpose of a post-release monitoring programme. OTC appeared to be the most suitable as it produced 100% retention over a five month period compared to 62% and 61% for VIFE and CWT respectively. OTC is therefore suggested as a tagging method for the purpose of post-release monitoring of the stock enhancement of A. japonicus. To evaluate a possible funding option for stock enhancement of A. japonicus in South Africa, a willingness-to-pay survey, based on a “user pays” approach using recreational fishing permits as a vehicle for payment, included 102 recreational anglers in the Plettenberg Bay area. The survey showed that generally anglers were willing to pay more than the current amount for the recreational fishing permit. This promising result, coupled with the fact that there are approximately 450 000 recreational anglers leads to the belief that there is potential for a substantial increase in the funds generated for the Marine Living Resources Fund through recreational anglers. Stock enhancement should not be ruled out on the basis of economic feasibility yet as there is potential for it to be sustained by the users of the resource. An A. japonicus juvenile production costing model was created taking into account setup and running costs of a hatchery for A. japonicus, based on known parameters from existing facilities, and adjusting them to meet the requirements of a stock enhancement facility. Estimates varied according to the number and size of fish for release (values which can only be decided upon after further research), with setup estimated to be between R 10 000 000 and R 30 000 000 and annual running costs between R 2 400 000 and R 6 700 000 annually. These figures were dependant on the size and number of fish being produced, with production ranging between 100 000 and 5 000 000 fish of between 50 mm and 150 mm, and a broodstock of 150 individuals. Given the need for alternative management of A. japonicus in South Africa and the lack of evidence to suggest that it is an unfeasible option, this project has found no reason why further investigation into the use of stock enhancement for the management of A. japonicus should not proceed further provided the fishery is shown to be recruit limited. The technology and ability to overcome possible ecological and genetic problems exists, a suitable means of tagging for post-release monitoring exists, as does a realistic funding option. There is a substantial amount of research that must be done prior to stocking, for which a base framework is provided.

The collection of bait organisms goes hand-in-hand with shore-angling in South Africa, hence the level of bait-collection can be used as an indicator of fishing effort and vice versa. This emphasises the importance of understanding the fisheries for bait organisms. In 1998 the South African fisheries policy was revised, culminating in the Marine Living Resources Act No. 18 (1998) which supported sustainable development, equitable access to resources and stability of the industry. The policy also dealt with the needs of subsistence fishers who had previously been all but ignored. This study looks to continue in this direction by investigating the opportunities for the establishment and management implications of small-scale commercial baitfisheries in the Eastern Cape. Data were collected from eight clearly demarcated sampling areas using the roving survey method. A total of 97 survey trips were undertaken between September 2001 and April 2003 and 469 interviews were conducted on individual anglers. The data was analysed and discussed on the basis of three wider study regions and this allowed for a more accurate and focussed assessment of the fishery area and the potential for its formalisation. Recreational fishers (91.5%) dominated in each of the three regions surveyed. The low number of subsistence fishers encountered in this study is not a standard pattern throughout South Africa. The dominance of local residents in the shore-fishery could have an important impact on the success of a formalised baitfishery in that the greater proportion of the potential market is accessible throughout the year. Most recreational shore-anglers were middle-aged (43.8 years ± 12.9 years), and hence at the peak of their earning years and this may contribute towards the potential success of a small-scale commercial baitfishery. Most anglers and baitfishers were of the opinion that all South Africans owned and were responsible for managing the living marine resources. The vast majority of recreational users paid for and were in possession of valid permits and approved of the baitfishery regulations. This implies that the greater majority of users recognise that the state is the rightful custodian of the resource and is responsible for management. No subsistence users were in possession of permits. Resource users in the Gamtoos to Tsitsikamma National Park region, where the inspection rate was highest, had the best knowledge of the regulations regarding both baitfishing (67.2% ± 38.8%) and angling (79.8 ± 21.4%). This substantiates the hypothesis that there is a direct correlation between knowledge of the regulations and the rate of inspection. About 475 000 angler-days/year were fished in the study area, with the highest number of angler-days recorded in or near urban and peri-urban areas. Bronze bream (65.9%) and dusky kob (61.1%) were the two most commonly targeted species, followed by white steenbras (31.7%), white musselcracker (31.4%) and blacktail (20.2%). A total of four purchased and 19 collected bait species was recorded during the study. Sardine, chokka and pink prawn were the most frequently encountered purchased bait. Red bait, sand prawn, mullet, siffie, sand mussel, bloodworm and saddleback were the most frequently encountered collected bait species. Sand prawn was identified as the preferred bait species for a wide range of angling species. The total quantity of bait organisms used per fishing trip was markedly less than the total amount collected per trip. The ban of off-road vehicles (ORV's) from beaches (20 January 2002) resulted in spatial shifts in angler effort in certain areas, suggesting that total effort has reduced in areas where ORV's were commonly used. Subsequent to the ban, fishers were encountered, on average, much closer to access points. The value of small-scale baitfisheries within the total study area was estimated at about R7 million per year. Across the entire study area red bait was identified as the most valuable bait in the rock-and-surf fishery in monetary terms, while sand prawn was also important. The findings led to the conclusion that small-scale commercial baitfisheries in the study area are potentially viable. Scenarios for the establishment of baitfisheries are suggested and discussed.

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), the Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries management (EAF) and Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) have been identified as possible alternatives to traditional linefish management measures, which have largely failed. Monitoring and assessment of fish communities on a long-term basis is necessary, and will provide a means to evaluate the effectiveness of such management measures. Therefore, standardised protocols and optimal sampling methods for long-term monitoring (LTM) and assessment of coastal fish communities are essential. This study aimed to identify suitable methods and develop a protocol for assessment of inshore reef fish communities. A suitable location for evaluation of proposed methods was identified in the warm temperate biogeographical region of South Africa, encompassing the well-established Tsitsikamma Coastal National Park MPA and an adjacent exploited area. Chrysoblephus laticeps (roman) was identified as an indicator species for the study, as it has been well-studied and is well represented in the area. Underwater visual census (UVC) and controlled fishing were identified as suitable methods. UVC transects were found to be superior to point counts, in terms of sampling efficiency, variability, bias and required sample size. An effort of two angler hours per fishing station was shown to provide low catch variability, while at the same time a representative catch and low overall cost and required time. The methods were incorporated in a proposed sampling protocol, and evaluated. The methods were able to detect known differences between protected and exploited communities. It is recommended that LTM within protected areas, for detection of natural change, be focused on community-level indicators, while LTM in exploited areas, aimed at detection of anthropogenic change, be focused on species-level indicators. The proposed protocol with standardised methods will allow for comparisons across a network of LTM sites and provide the opportunity for a broad-scale assessment of the effects of environmental variables on reef fish stocks. The protocol developed in this study has application in other biogeographical regions in South Africa, and other parts of the world. Shift in the focus of much marine research, in South Africa and elsewhere, to LTM, highlights the relevance and timeous nature of this study.