Simulation tools have progressed largely and in modern times they are commonly usedby engineers to design and simulate machines or part of machines before building and deploying them in the field. The field of Hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) is gaining significant interest among companies as they strive to enhance product safety and reliability simul-taneously reducing testing costs and accelerated development speed. This study presents the Real Time simulation improvements effectuated to the Steer and Brake by wire system on an underground face drill rig. These improvements in the model are validated with a comparison between simulated environment and real test data from the machine using a cosimulation between Matlab&Simulink with AMESim. At the end, this improved model is prepared to be compatible with an Hardware-in-the-loop application that requires an adequate computational time.

Electro Hydrostatic Actuators (EHA) are emerging as a viable option for industrial machine builders as the design combines the best of both electro-mechanical and electro-hydraulic technologies. The EHA is a highly integrated, compact alternative to traditional hydraulic solutions. Automation engineers moving toward electro-mechanical actuation in pursuit of energy efficiency and environmental cleanliness, will find an EHA an attractive option for high force density actuators. This paper will address the factors to consider when assessing an industrial machine’s application suitability for this latest innovation in actuation. It describes principal base circuits, a concept for EHA building blocks and a realized pilot application as well as challenges on actuator and components level.

Successful development of mechatronic systems requires a combination of targeted hardware and software design. The compact rescue robot (CRR), a quadruped pneumatically-actuated walking robot that seeks to use the benefits garnered from pneumatic power, is a prime example of such a system. This thesis discusses the development and testing of a simulation that will aid in further design and development of the CRR by enabling users to examine the impacts of pneumatic actuation on a walking robot. However, development of an entirely new dynamic simulation specific to the system is not practical. Instead, the simulation combines a MATLAB/Simulink actuator simulation with a readily available C++ dynamics library. This multi-platform approach results in additional incurred challenges due to the transfer of data between the platforms. As a result, the system developed here is designed in the fashion that provides the best balance of realistic behavior, model integrity, and practicality. An analytically derived actuator model is developed using classical fluid circuit modeling together with nonlinear area and pressure curves to model the valve and a Stribeck-Tanh model to characterize the effects of friction on the cylinder. The valve model is designed in Simulink and validated on a single degree-of-freedom test rig. This actuator model is then interfaced with SrLib, a dynamics library that computes dynamics of the robot and interactions with the environment, and validated through comparisons with a CRR prototype. Conclusions are focused on the final composition of the simulation, its performance and limitations, and the benefits it offers to the system as a whole.

Heavy load equipment, such as tractors, shovels, cranes, airplanes, etc, often employ fluid power (i.e. hydraulic) systems to control their loads by way of valve adjustment in a pump-valve control configuration. Most of these systems have low energy efficiency as a consequence of pressure losses across throttle valves. Much of the energy is converted into heat energy which can have determinantal effects on component life and the surrounding environment. From an energy efficiency point of view, an ideal hydraulic system is one that does not include any throttling valve. One such circuit is made of a variable pump and motor load (pump/motor configuration). The velocity of the load is controlled by manipulating the pump displacement or by changing the rotary speed of the pump shaft. In such a system, the transient response of the load is often unsatisfactory because it is difficult to quickly and accurately manipulate the pump displacement or change shaft speed. Thus circuit design must be a compromise between the energy efficiency of the pump/motor system and the controllability of a pump/valve/motor combination. One possible compromise is to use a pump-valve configuration which reduces energy losses across the valve. One way to achieve this is by controlling the pressure drop across the valve and limiting it to a small value, independent of load pressure. Based on this idea, a type of hydraulic control system, usually called load-sensing (LS), has recently been used in the flow power area. This type of system, however, is complex and under certain operating conditions exhibits instability problems. Methods for compensating these instabilities are usually based on a trial-and-error approach. Although some research has resulted in the definition of some instability criterion, a comprehensive and verifiable approach is still lacking. This research concentrates on identifying the relationship between system parameters and instability in one particular type of LS system. Due to the high degree of non-linearity in LS systems, the instabilities are dependent on the steady state operating point. The study therefore concentrates first on identifying all of the steady state operating points and then classifying them into three steady state operating regions. A dynamic model for each operating region is developed to predict the presence of instabilities. Each model is then validated experimentally. This procedure, used in the study of the LS system, is also applied to a pressure compensated (PC) valve. A PC valve is one in which the flow rate is independent in variations to load pressure. A system which combines a LS pump and a PC valve (for the controlling orifice) is called a load sensing pressure compensated (LSPC) system. This research, then, examines the dynamic performance of the LSPC system using the operating points and steady state operating regions identified in the first part of the research. The original contributions of this research include: (a) establishment of three steady state operating conditions defined as Condition I, II & III, which are based on the solution of steady state non-linear equations; (b) the provision of an empirical model of the orifice discharge coefficient suitable for laminar and turbulent flow, and the transition region between them; (c) and the development of an analytical expression for orifice flow which makes it possible to accurately model and simulate a hydraulic system with pilot stage valve or pump/motor compensator. These contributions result in a practical and reliable method to determine the stability of a LS or LSPC system at any operating point and to optimize the design of the LS or LSPC system.

Heavy load equipment, such as tractors, shovels, cranes, airplanes, etc, often employ fluid power (i.e. hydraulic) systems to control their loads by way of valve adjustment in a pump-valve control configuration. Most of these systems have low energy efficiency as a consequence of pressure losses across throttle valves. Much of the energy is converted into heat energy which can have determinantal effects on component life and the surrounding environment. From an energy efficiency point of view, an ideal hydraulic system is one that does not include any throttling valve. One such circuit is made of a variable pump and motor load (pump/motor configuration). The velocity of the load is controlled by manipulating the pump displacement or by changing the rotary speed of the pump shaft. In such a system, the transient response of the load is often unsatisfactory because it is difficult to quickly and accurately manipulate the pump displacement or change shaft speed. Thus circuit design must be a compromise between the energy efficiency of the pump/motor system and the controllability of a pump/valve/motor combination. One possible compromise is to use a pump-valve configuration which reduces energy losses across the valve. One way to achieve this is by controlling the pressure drop across the valve and limiting it to a small value, independent of load pressure. Based on this idea, a type of hydraulic control system, usually called load-sensing (LS), has recently been used in the flow power area. This type of system, however, is complex and under certain operating conditions exhibits instability problems. Methods for compensating these instabilities are usually based on a trial-and-error approach. Although some research has resulted in the definition of some instability criterion, a comprehensive and verifiable approach is still lacking. This research concentrates on identifying the relationship between system parameters and instability in one particular type of LS system. Due to the high degree of non-linearity in LS systems, the instabilities are dependent on the steady state operating point. The study therefore concentrates first on identifying all of the steady state operating points and then classifying them into three steady state operating regions. A dynamic model for each operating region is developed to predict the presence of instabilities. Each model is then validated experimentally. This procedure, used in the study of the LS system, is also applied to a pressure compensated (PC) valve. A PC valve is one in which the flow rate is independent in variations to load pressure. A system which combines a LS pump and a PC valve (for the controlling orifice) is called a load sensing pressure compensated (LSPC) system. This research, then, examines the dynamic performance of the LSPC system using the operating points and steady state operating regions identified in the first part of the research. The original contributions of this research include: (a) establishment of three steady state operating conditions defined as Condition I, II & III, which are based on the solution of steady state non-linear equations; (b) the provision of an empirical model of the orifice discharge coefficient suitable for laminar and turbulent flow, and the transition region between them; (c) and the development of an analytical expression for orifice flow which makes it possible to accurately model and simulate a hydraulic system with pilot stage valve or pump/motor compensator. These contributions result in a practical and reliable method to determine the stability of a LS or LSPC system at any operating point and to optimize the design of the LS or LSPC system.

In this thesis study, a valveless hydraulic servo system controlled by two pumps is investigated and its performance characteristics are compared with a conventional valve controlled system both experimentally and analytically. The two control techniques are applied on the position control of a single rod linear actuator. In the valve controlled system, the flow rate through the actuator is regulated with a servovalve / whereas in the pump controlled system, two variable speed pumps driven by servomotors regulate the flow rate according to the needs of the system, thus eliminating the valve losses. To understand the dynamic behaviors of two systems, the order of the differential equations defining the system dynamics of the both systems are reduced by using the fact that the dynamic pressure changes in the hydraulic cylinder chambers become linearly dependent on leakage coefficients and cylinder chamber volumes above and below some prescribed cut off frequencies. Thus the open loop speed response of the pump controlled and valve controlled systems are defined by v second order transfer functions. The two systems are modeled in MATLAB Simulink environment and the assumptions are validated. For the position control of the single rod hydraulic actuator, a linear state feedback control scheme is applied. Its state feedback gains are determined by using the linear and linearized reduced order dynamic system equations. A linear Kalman filter for pump controlled system and an unscented Kalman filter for valve controlled system are designed for estimation and filtering purposes. The dynamic performances of both systems are investigated on an experimental test set up developed by conducting open loop and closed loop frequency response and step response tests. MATLAB Real Time Windows Target (RTWT) module is used in the tests for application purposes.

Linear Incremental Hydraulic Actuators combine one or more short-stroke cylinders, and two or more engaging/disengaging mechanisms into one actuator with long, medium, or even unlimited stroke length. The motion of each single short-stroke actuator concatenated by the engaging/disengaging mechanisms forms the motion of the linear incremental hydraulic actuator. The patterns of how these motions are concatenated form the gaits of a specific linear incremental hydraulic actuator. Linear incremental hydraulic actuators may have more than one gait. In an application, the gaits may be combined to achieve optimal performance at various operating points. The distinguishing characteristic of linear incremental hydraulic actuators is the incremental motion. The term incremental actuator is seen as analogous to the incremental versus absolute position sensor. Incremental actuators realize naturally relative positioning. Incremental motion means also that the behavior does not depend on an absolute position but only on the relative position within a cycle or step. Incremental actuators may realize discrete incremental or continuous incremental motion. Discrete incremental actuators can only approach discrete positions, whereby stepper drives are one prominent example. In contrast, continuous incremental actuators may approach any position. Linear electric motors are one example of continuous incremental actuators. The actuator has no inherent limitation in stroke length, as every step or cycle adds only to the state at the beginning of the step or cycle and does not depend on the absolute position. This led to the alternative working title Hydraulic Infinite Linear Actuator. Linear incremental hydraulic actuator provides long stroke, high force, and linear motion and has the potential to decrease the necessary resource usage, minimize environmental impact, e.g. from potential oil spillage, extend the range of feasible products: longer, stiffer, better, etc. This thesis presents an analysis of the characteristics and properties of linear incremental hydraulic actuators as well as the gaits and possible realizations of some gaits. The gait for continuous, smooth motion with two cylinders is comprehensively studied and a control concept for the tracking problem is proposed. The control concept encapsulates the complexity of the linear incremental hydraulic actuator so that an application does not have to deal with it. One other gait, the ballistic gait, which realizes fast, energy-efficient motion, enabling energy recuperation is studied.

Elektrisch-hydrostatische Kompaktantriebe (EKA) stellen ein innovatives, neuar-tiges Antriebskonzept dar, welches – ausgeführt als funktionsfertige Baugruppe – die Anwenderfreundlichkeit bei der Maschinenintegration, Inbetriebnahme und Wartung signifikant steigert. Elektrisch-hydrostatische Kompaktantriebe verbinden die inhärenten Vorteile hydraulischer Antriebstechnik wie beispiels-weise Robustheit, hohe Leistungsdichte und Überlastschutz mit Energieeffizi-enz, Ressourceneffizienz, Anwenderfreundlichkeit und geringem Bauraum. Auf-grund seines kompakten und kostengünstigen Aufbaus ist der Differentialzylin-der der mit Abstand am häufigsten eingesetzte Aktor bei hydraulischen Anwen-dungen. Die Herausforderung beim Einsatz eines Differentialzylinders im hyd-rostatischen Getriebe ist die Steuerung der asymmetrischen Volumenströme, die durch die einseitige Kolbenstange hervorgerufen werden. Die vorliegende Arbeit widmet sich der systematischen Entwicklung und Unter-suchung von Schaltungskonzepten, die sich für elektrisch-hydrostatische Kom-paktantriebe mit Differentialzylinder für die industrielle Anwendung eignen. Vor dem Hintergrund eines ressourcenschonenden und wirtschaftlichen Einsatzes der Antriebe werden Vorzugsvarianten ermittelt, die sowohl energie- als auch kosteneffizient sind. Das statische und dynamische Übertragungsverhalten so-wie die Energieeffizienz der ausgewählten Schaltungen werden auf der Grund-lage von praxisnahen Demonstratoren bestimmt. Die analytische und experi-mentelle Untersuchung der Vorzugsvarianten zeigt das Potential und die Gren-zen der Schaltungskonzepte für den industriellen Einsatz auf. Darüber hinaus wird der Vergleich mit elektromechanischen Kompaktantrieben im gleichen Leistungsbereich geführt, um die erzielten Ergebnisse in der Gegenüberstellung einordnen zu können. Um die Notwendigkeit einer aktiven Kühlung für potentielle Einsatzgebiete ohne aufwendige Experimente abschätzen zu können, werden zudem die Methoden der thermo-energetischen Netzwerksimulation auf elektrisch-hydrostatische Kompaktantriebe angewendet. Anhand eines Beispielantriebs wird ermittelt, mit welcher Genauigkeit das thermo-energetische Verhalten und die sich einstel-lende Beharrungstemperatur berechnet werden können.:1 Einleitung 1 2 Zielstellung der Arbeit 6 3 Stand der Forschung 8 3.1 Grundlagen 8 3.2 Hydrostatische Getriebe mit Gleichgangzylinder 10 3.2.1 Elektrisch-hydrostatische Aktuatoren (EHA) 11 3.3 Hydrostatische Getriebe mit Differentialzylinder 13 3.4 Thermo-energetische Analyse und Modellierung 24 4 Systematisierung der Schaltungsmöglichkeiten 27 4.1 Analyse typischer Anwendungen für EKA 27 4.2 Systematisierung der Lastfälle 27 4.3 Schaltungssystematik 29 4.4 Auswahl von Vorzugsvarianten 35 5 Einpumpenkonzept mit Ausgleichsventil 40 5.1 Aufbau und Funktionsweise 40 5.2 Demonstrator 43 5.3 Statisches Betriebsverhalten 46 5.4 Dynamisches Übertragungsverhalten 47 5.4.1 Dynamische Streckenkennwerte 47 5.4.2 Lastfallspezifisches dynamisches Verhalten 57 5.4.3 Dynamisches Verhalten bei dominanten Massekräften 60 5.5 Energieeffizienz 89 5.5.1 Elektrischer Antrieb 91 5.5.2 Hydrostatisches Getriebe 93 5.5.3 Gesamtantrieb 96 5.6 Fazit und Einsatzempfehlungen 97 6 Tandempumpenkonzept im offenen Kreis 99 6.1 Aufbau und Funktionsweise 99 6.2 Demonstrator 101 6.3 Statisches Übertragungsverhalten 102 6.4 Dynamisches Übertragungsverhalten 103 6.4.1 Dynamische Streckenkennwerte 103 6.4.2 Lastfallspezifisches dynamisches Verhalten 106 6.5 Energieeffizienz 109 6.5.1 Hydrostatisches Getriebe 109 6.5.2 Gesamtantrieb 111 6.6 Fazit und Einsatzempfehlungen 112 7 Untersuchung eines elektromechanischen Referenzantriebs 114 7.1 Bauarten, Eigenschaften und Einsatzgebiete elektromechanischer Linearantriebe 114 7.1.1 Übersetzung 117 7.1.2 Maximale Hubgeschwindigkeit 117 7.1.3 Maximale Hubkraft 117 7.1.4 Lebensdauer und Verschleiß 118 7.1.5 Wirkungsgrad 120 7.1.6 Steifigkeit 120 7.1.7 Fail-safe 121 7.2 Referenzantrieb 121 7.3 Statisches Übertragungsverhalten 122 7.4 Dynamisches Übertragungsverhalten 122 7.5 Energieeffizienz 123 7.5.1 Kugelgewindetrieb 123 7.5.2 Gesamtantrieb 124 8 Vergleich und Bewertung der Antriebssysteme 126 8.1 Statisches Übertragungsverhalten 126 8.2 Dynamisches Übertragungsverhalten 127 8.3 Energieeffizienz 128 8.4 Weiterführender Vergleich und Bewertung 129 9 Thermo-hydraulische Netzwerksimulation 134 9.1 Methodik 134 9.2 Grundlagen der Thermodynamik und Wärmeübertragung 135 9.2.1 Wärmeleitung 136 9.2.2 Konvektion 136 9.2.3 Wärmestrahlung 138 9.2.4 Wärmeübergang an Fugen zwischen Bauteilen 139 9.3 Analyse der Verlustleistungen 142 9.4 Analyse der Wärmeströme und thermischen Widerstände 145 9.4.1 Erzwungene Konvektion zwischen Öl und Innenfläche 146 9.4.2 Wärmeleitung in Festkörpern (Gehäuse) 147 9.4.3 Wärmeübergang an Fugen zwischen Bauteilen 147 9.4.4 Freie Konvektion an den Außenflächen 148 9.4.5 Wärmestrahlung an den Außenflächen 150 9.4.6 Zusammenfassung 151 9.5 Zulässige Öltemperatur des Antriebs 152 9.6 Thermo-hydraulisches Simulationsmodell des Demonstrators 152 9.7 Validierung 155 9.7.1 Vorbetrachtungen an einer Modellgeometrie 155 9.7.2 Prüfstandsaufbau und Versuchsparameter 157 9.7.3 Gegenüberstellung von Simulation und Messung 159 9.8 Sensitivitätsanalyse 162 9.8.1 Variation der Verlustleistung 163 9.8.2 Variation der Umgebungstemperatur 164 9.8.3 Variation des Korrekturfaktors für Umgebungsströmungen 165 9.9 Simulationsstudie zur Verbesserung des Wärmeabgabevermögens 166 9.10 Zusammenfassung 166 10 Zusammenfassung und Ausblick 168 11 Literaturverzeichnis 172 12 Anhang 194

Modern production systems have to allow high performance cutting processes in a flexible production system environment at a high level of accuracy. The final workpiece accuracy is mainly influenced by the thermo-elastic behavior of the machine tool and can be improved by additional measures, compensation strategies and an optimized machine design. These measures are often implemented as stand-alone solutions. According to the Industry 4.0 all information should be connected in a single model of the actual machine state to increase machining accuracy. It is therefore necessary to integrate upcoming smart fluid power systems into the machine network.

Electro Hydrostatic Actuators (EHA) are emerging as a viable option for industrial machine builders as the design combines the best of both electro-mechanical and electro-hydraulic technologies. The EHA is a highly integrated, compact alternative to traditional hydraulic solutions. Automation engineers moving toward electro-mechanical actuation in pursuit of energy efficiency and environmental cleanliness, will find an EHA an attractive option for high force density actuators. This paper will address the factors to consider when assessing an industrial machine’s application suitability for this latest innovation in actuation. It describes principal base circuits, a concept for EHA building blocks and a realized pilot application as well as challenges on actuator and components level.