The size and conformational complexity of proteins and other large systems represent major challenges for today's methods of quantum chemistry.This thesis is centered around the development of new computational tools to gain molecular-level insight into electronic transitions in such systems. To meet this challenge, we focus on the polarizable embedding (PE) model, which takes advantage of the fact that many electronic transitions are localized to a smaller part of the entire system.This motivates a partitioning of the large system into two regions that are treated at different levels of theory:The smaller part directly involved in the electronic process is described using accurate quantum-chemical methods, while the effects of the rest of the system, the environment, are incorporated into the Hamiltonian of the quantum region in an effective manner. This thesis presents extensions of the PE model with theaim of expanding its range of applicability to describe electronic transitions in large molecular systemsin the optical and X-ray regions. The developments cover both improvements with regardto the quantum region as well as the embedding potential representing the environment.Regarding the former, a damped linear response formulation has been implemented to allow for calculations of absorption spectra of large molecular systems acrossthe entire frequency range. A special feature of this development is its abilityto address core excitations that are otherwise not easily accessible.Another important development presented in this thesis is the coupling of the PE model to a multi-configuration self-consistent-field description of the quantum region and its further combination with response theory. In essence, this extends the PE model to the study of electronic transitions in large systems that are prone to static correlation --- a situation that is frequently encountered in biological systems. In addition to the direct environmental effects on the electronic structure of the quantum region, another important component of the description of electronic transitions in large molecular systems is an accurate account of the indirect effects of the environment, i.e., the geometrical distortions in the quantum region imposed by the environment. In thisthesis we have taken the first step toward the inclusion of geometry distortions in the PE frameworkby formulating and implementing molecular gradients for the quantum region. To identify critical points related to the environment description, we perform a theoretical analysis of the PE model starting from a full quantum-mechanicaltreatment of a composite system. Based on this, we present strategies for an accurate yet efficient construction of the embedding potentialcovering both the calculation of ground state and transition properties. The accurate representation of the environment makes it possible to reduce the size of the quantum region without compromising the overall accuracy of the final results. This further enables use of highly accurate quantum-chemical methods despite their unfavorable scaling with the size of the system. Finally, some examples of applications will be presented to demonstrate how the PE model may be applied as a tool to gain insight into and rationalize the factors influencing electronic transitions in large molecular systems of increasing complexity. / <p>The dissertation was awarded the best PhD thesis prize 2016 by the Danish Academy of Natural Sciences.</p><p></p><p>QC 20170209</p>

Membrane protein dynamics is of great importance for living organisms. The precise localization of proteins composing a synapse on the membrane facing a nerve terminus is essential for proper functioning of the nervous system. In muscle fibers, the nicotinic acetylcholine is densely packed under the motor nerve termini. A receptor associated protein, rapsyn, acts as a linker between the receptor and the other components of the synaptic suramolecular assembly. Advances in fluorescence microscopy have allowed to measure the behavior of a single receptor in the cell membrane. In this work single-molecule microscopy was used to track the motion of ionotropic acetylcholine (nAChR) and serotonin (5HT3R) receptors in the plasma membrane of cells. We present methods for measuring single-molecule diffusion and their analysis. Single molecule tracking has shown a high dependence of acetylcholine receptors diffusion on its associated protein rapsyn. Comparing muscle cells that either express rapsyn or are devoid of it, we found that rapsyn plays an important role on receptor immobilization. A three-fold increase of receptor mobility was observed in muscle cells devoid of rapsyn. However, in these cells, a certain fraction of immobilized receptors was also found immobile. Furthermore, nAChR were strongly confined in membrane domains of few tens of nanometers. This showed that membrane composition and membrane associated proteins influence on receptor localization. During muscle cell differentiation, the fraction of immobile nAChR diminished along with the decreasing nAChR and stable rapsyn expression levels. The importance of rapsyn in nAChR immobilization has been further confirmed by measurements in HEK 293 cells, where co-expression of rapsyn increased immobilization of the receptor. nAChR is a ligand-gated ion-channel of the Cys-loop family. In mammals, members of this receptor family share general structural and functional features. They are homo- or hetero-pentamers and form a membrane-spanning ion channel. Subunits have three major regions, an extracellular ligand binding domain, a transmembrane channel and a large intracellular loop. 5HT3R was used as a model to study the effect of this loop on receptor mobility. Single-molecule tracking experiments on receptors with progressively larger deletions in the intracellular loop did not show a dependence of the size of the loop on the diffusion coefficient of mobile receptors. However, two regions were identified to play a role in receptor mobility by changing the fractions of immobile and directed receptors. Interestingly, a prokaryotic homologue of cys-loop receptors, ELIC, devoid of a large cytoplasmic loop was found to be immobile or to show directed diffusion similar as the wild-type 5HT3R. The scaffolding protein rapsyn stabilizes nAChR clusters in a concentration dependent manner. We have measured the density and self-interactions of rapsyn using FRET microscopy. Point-mutations of rapsyn, known to provoke myopathies, destabilized rapsyn self-interactions. Rapsyn-N88K, and R91L were found at high concentration in the cytoplasm suggesting that this modification disturbs membrane association of rapsyn. A25V was found to accumulate in the endoplasmic reticulum. Fluorescent tools to measure intracellular concentration of calcium ions are of great value to study the function of neurons. Rapsyn is highly abundant at the neuromuscular junction and thus is a genuine synaptic marker. A fusion protein of rapsyn with a genetically encoded ratiometric calcium sensor has been made to probe synapse activity. This thesis has shown that the combined use of biologically relevant system and modern fluorescence microscopy techniques deliver important information on pLGIC behaviour in the cell membrane. / <p>QC 20151217</p>

Les protéines fluorescentes, comme la GFP (green fluorescent protein), sont des protéines naturellement fluorescentes qui sont utilisées pour leur rôle de marqueur, permettant de localiser des protéines dans les cellules et d'en suivre les déplacements. De nombreuses études expérimentales et théoriques ont été menées ces dix dernières années sur les protéines fluorescentes. De là, se forge une compréhension essentiellement qualitative du rôle de la protéine vis-à-vis de l’obtention ou non d’une émission radiative : il apparaît que la protéine permet la fluorescence en bloquant les processus qui la désactivent ; ces processus de désactivation sont très rapides et efficaces (à l'échelle de la picoseconde) dans le cas du chromophore seul, et ils sont bien identifiés comme étant des torsions autour des liaisons intercycles (tau et phi). Dans la protéine, la sensibilité des temps de vie de fluorescence à des mutations proches ou non du chromophore, à des modifications de pH ou de température laisse supposer un contrôle de la dynamique du chromophore par différents paramètres, sans qu’ils soient pour autant identifiés et mis en relation.Une étude de la dynamique de la protéine permettrait de faire la lumière sur les mécanismes responsables de ces phénomènes photophysiques pour lesquels une analyse structurale ne suffit pas. Cependant l'étude de la dynamique est limitée par la taille du système (>30 000 atomes), par l'échelle de temps des phénomènes photophysiques considérés (dizaine de nanosecondes) et par le fait que les deux torsions tau et phi sont fortement couplées dans l'état excité du chromophore. Ces trois facteurs excluent les méthodes de dynamique existantes aujourd'hui ; dynamique quantique (AIMD), dynamique mixte classique-quantique (QM/MD) et dynamique moléculaire classique (MD).Nous avons surmonté le problème par la modélisation de la surface d’énergie potentielle de torsion du chromophore à l’état excité basée sur des calculs quantiques de haute précision, par une interpolation des valeurs obtenues par une expression analytique appropriée en fonction des angles de torsion tau et phi et avec une précision suffisante pour reproduire des barrières de l’ordre de la kcal/mol, et enfin, par l’implémentation de cette expression analytique dans le programme parallèle AMBER. Une deuxième difficulté théorique concerne la simulation et l’analyse statistique d’événements peu fréquents à l’échelle de la nanoseconde, et dont on ne connait pas le chemin de réaction, ici les déformations de la protéine et du chromophore conduisant aux géométries favorables à la conversion interne. Grâce à ces développements et aux simulations qu'ils ont permises, nous avons réalisé la première modélisation de la désactivation non-radiative par conversion interne à l’échelle de la nanoseconde dans trois protéines fluorescentes différentes. L’analyse des dynamiques moléculaires classiques nous donne une évaluation quantitative des temps de vie de l’extinction de fluorescence, en accord avec les données expérimentales. Par ailleurs elle nous a permis d'identifier les mouvements moléculaires concertés de la protéine et du chromophore conduisant à cette extinction. De ces résultats, émerge une représentation plus complète du mécanisme qui libère la torsion du chromophore ou qui la déclenche : il peut venir d’un mouvement spécifique de la protéine, qui se produit à l’échelle de la nanoseconde, ou bien de plusieurs mouvements spécifiques, plus fréquents (rupture de liaisons hydrogène, rotation de chaînes latérales, dynamique d'agrégats d’eau), mais qui coïncident seulement à l’échelle de la nanoseconde. Ces mouvements spécifiques n’ont pas un coût énergétique important mais la nécessité de leur coïncidence crée un délai de l’ordre de quelques nanosecondes alors que dans le vide la torsion se produit en quelques picosecondes. Dans le cas des protéines étudiées, on a identifié en grande partie les mécanismes et les acides aminés qui sont impliqués. / Fluorescent proteins, like GFP (green fluorescent protein), are efficient sensors for a variety of physical-chemical properties and they are extensively used as markers in living cells imaging. These proteins have been widely studied both experimentally and theoretically the last decade. The comprehension of the protein's role in the regulation of the radiative emission is today essentially qualitative: it appears that the protein enables the fluorescence by blocking the processes that deactivates it; the deactivating processes are very quick and efficient (on the picosecond time scale) when the chromophore is isolated, and they are identified as being the torsions around the central bonds of the chromophore (tau and phi). The fluorescence lifetimes of a protein is very sensitive to mutations in the vicinity of the chromophore, to modifications in pH or in temperature. This seems to indicate a control of the dynamics of the chromophore by different parameters, that are not necessarily identified.A study of the dynamics of the protein would allow a deeper understanding of the mechanisms that are responsible for the fluorescence quenching. From a theoretical point of view, one is faced with three difficulties in this type of study: the size of the system (>30 000 atoms including a water box), the required time scale (tens of nanoseconds) and the fact that the torsions tau and phi are strongly coupled in the excited state of the chromophore. We must thus rule out the already existing dynamics methods: quantum dynamics (AIMD), mixed classical-quantum dynamics (QM/MD) and classical molecular dynamics (MD).We have overcome this problem by modeling the torsional potential energy surface of the chromophore in the first excited state trough high precision quantum calculations, by interpolating the energy values with an analytical fitting expression depending on the torsions tau and phi and with a precision high enough to reproduce barriers of the order of 1 kcal/mol, and lastly, by implementing this fitting expression in a parallelized version of the MD program AMBER. Another theoretical difficulty concerns the simulation and the statistical analysis of rare events on the nanosecond time scale without knowing the reaction path in advance, i.e. the deformations of the protein and of the chromophore leading to geometries where the internal conversion is favored. As a result of these developments and of the simulations they have enabled, we have been able to model, for the first time, the non-radiative deactivation by internal conversion at the nanosecond time scale in three different fluorescent proteins. The analysis of the classical molecular dynamics gives us a quantitative evaluation of the lifetime of the fluorescence extinction, in agreement with experimental results. In addition, it has allowed us to identify the concerted molecular movements between the protein and the chromophore leading to this extinction. A more complete representation of the mechanism that liberates or provokes the chromophore torsion emerges from these results: it could be a specific movement of the protein, that occurs on the nanosecond timescale, or several specific movements that occur more frequently (breakage of a hydrogen bond, rotation of side chains, dynamics of a water cluster), but that coincide only on the nanosecond time scale. These specific movements do not have a high energy cost but the need for them to coincide creates a delay of several nanoseconds compared to the chromophore torsion in vacuo which occurs after a few picoseconds. In the proteins we have studied (GFP, YFP and Padron), we have identified the principle components of the mechanisms and the amino acids that are implicated in this chromophore-protein interplay.

No description available.

The RNA interference is a mechanism, which allows cells to regulate their genes functions, to establish and maintain heterochromatin and to defend them against invasive nucleic acids. In plants, RNA interference is initiated by double-stranded RNA, which is processed by Dicer into small RNAs, usually 20-24nt long. These small RNAs form a complex with Argonaut protein that participates in different processes based on sequence complementarity. This complex can guide mRNA cleavage, translation blocking and chromatin modifications, resulting either into posttranscriptional silencing (by preventing translation of already existing mRNA, PTGS) or transcriptional silencing (by preventing transcription of mRNA, TGS). The first step of this thesis was to establish different ways of triggering PTGS and to evaluate their functionality and efficiency. The next step was a preparation of a system which would allow to study the transition from posttrancriptional to transcriptional silencing. These so called "indicator lines" should allow to observe the timing and dynamics of this process by utilizing fluorescent proteins. This system is also going to enable to evaluate, how different factors are involved in this process - one of the factors is RNA-dependent RNA polymerase 6 (RDR6) which plays an essential role in...

No / The ability of neurons to modulate synaptic strength underpins synaptic plasticity, learning and memory, and adaptation to sensory experience. Despite the importance of synaptic adaptation in directing, reinforcing, and revising the behavioral response to environmental influences, the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying synaptic adaptation are far from clear. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is a prime initiator of structural and functional synaptic adaptation. However, the signaling cascade activated by BDNF to initiate these adaptive changes has not been elucidated. We have previously shown that BDNF activates mitogen- and stress-activated kinase 1 (MSK1), which regulates gene transcription via the phosphorylation of both CREB and histone H3. Using mice with a kinase-dead knock-in mutation of MSK1, we now show that MSK1 is necessary for the upregulation of synaptic strength in response to environmental enrichment in vivo. Furthermore, neurons from MSK1 kinase-dead mice failed to show scaling of synaptic transmission in response to activity deprivation in vitro, a deficit that could be rescued by reintroduction of wild-type MSK1. We also show that MSK1 forms part of a BDNF- and MAPK-dependent signaling cascade required for homeostatic synaptic scaling, which likely resides in the ability of MSK1 to regulate cell surface GluA1 expression via the induction of Arc/Arg3.1. These results demonstrate that MSK1 is an integral part of a signaling pathway that underlies the adaptive response to synaptic and environmental experience. MSK1 may thus act as a key homeostat in the activity- and experience-dependent regulation of synaptic strength.