As tetraciclinas são compostos antibacterianos utilizados no gado leiteiro para tratamento de doenças infecciosas, como a mastite e também como aditivos em ração animal para melhorar a conversão alimentar. O uso das tetraciclinas pode resultar na presença de resíduos destes fármacos no leite, principalmente se não forem utilizados de acordo com as indicações e se não for respeitado o período mínimo de eliminação dos antibióticos pelo leite. A presença de resíduos de antibióticos no leite interfere no processo industrial de derivados, inibindo fermentos láticos usados na produção de iogurtes e queijos, o que, consequentemente, causa sérios prejuízos econômicos. Resíduos de antibióticos no leite de consumo podem representar riscos à saúde humana, podendo causar reações alérgicas em indivíduos sensíveis, efeitos adversos à flora intestinal humana prejudicando sua ação protetora local, além de propiciar a seleção de populações de bactérias resistentes. O Food and Drug Administration (FDA) estabelece limite máximo de resíduo (LMR) para as tetraciclinas em leite de 300ppb, enquanto a Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) e o Plano Nacional de Controle de Resíduos Biológicos em Produtos de Origem Animal do Ministério da Agricultura brasileiro estabelecem LMR de 100 ppb·. O objetivo deste estudo foi validar um método multirresíduo para determinação de oxitetraciclina, tetraciclina, clortetraciclina e doxiciclina em leite por extração com desproteinização acídica e identificação e quantificação por cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência acoplada ao detector de arranjo de diodos. O método apresentou limite de detecção e quantificação, respectivamente de 37,5 e 50ng/ml, lineridade de 50-1600ng/ml e coeficientes de determinação de 0,9996; 0,9994; 0,9996 e 0,9996 para oxitetraciclina, tetraciclina, clortetraciclina e doxiciclina, respectivamente, recuperação entre 66,6 e 89,6%, com precisão e exatidão adequadas. Para avaliar a aplicabilidade do método foram analisadas 231 amostras de leite in natura, obtidas em um laticínio, em três coletas consecutivas e mensais. O índice de amostras positivas para oxitetraciclina manteve-se superior a 11%. Na primeira coleta 19% das amostras foram positivas para oxitetraciclina, na segunda coleta 11,5% e na terceira coleta 12,2%. Os resultados indicam que o método validado mostrou-se apropriado para monitorização da qualidade do leite. / The tetracyclines are antimicrobial agent used in dairy cattle to treat infection diseases, as mastitis and also as additives in animal food to produce improvements in feed efficiency and growth. The use of tetracyclines can result in presence of residue of these antimicrobials in the milk, especially if they are not used according to the label directions and if the minimum period of their elimination is not respected. The presence of antibiotic residues in the milk interferes in the dairy industrial process diminishing starter culture growth used in the yogurt and cheese production, what causes strong economic loss. Antibiotic residue in the consumer milk can represent risk to the human health, being possible to cause allergic reactions in sensitives human beans, disorders of the intestinal flora damaging its local protection action besides to provide antibiotic resistance development. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) establishes maximum residue limit (MRL) of 300ppb for tetracycline in milk while the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) and the National Plan of Biological Residue Control in animal products of Brazilian Agricultural Bureau establishe MRL of 100ppb. The objective of this study was to validate the multiresidue method to determine the oxytetracycline, tetracycline, chlortetracycline and doxycycline in milk by acidic desproteinization extraction and to identify and quantify by high performance liquid chromatography with photo-diode array detector. The method presented detection limit and quantification limit respectively of 37,5 and 50 ng/ml, linearity from 50 to 1600ng/ml and correlation coefficient of 0,9996, 0,9994, 0,9996 and 0,9996 to the oxytetracycline, tetracycline, chlortetracycline and doxycycline respectively; recovery between 66,6 and 89,2%, with good precisions and accurancy. There were analyzed 231 samples of milk in nature obtained in a dairy industrie, in three stages consecutive and monthly. The indices of positive samples for oxytetacycline remained superior to 11%. In the first stage 19% of the samples were positive for oxytetracycline, in the second stage 11,5% and in the third stage 12,2%. The results show that the validated method is appropriated for the monitoring the quality of the milk.

Os metais de relevância toxicológica provenientes de fontes naturais e antropogênicas continuamente entram no ecossistema aquático causando sérios problemas à saúde humana e ambientais devido a sua toxicidade, longa persistência, bioacumulação e biomagnificação na cadeia alimentar. A contaminação de peixe e produtos da pesca por metais é de interesse da saúde pública. No Brasil, o Ministério da Saúde estabelece o limite máximo de tolerância (LMT) de 1,0 mg/kg para o arsênio em peixe e produtos da pesca e 0,5 mg/kg para o mercúrio, e 1,0 mg/kg em peixe predadores. O LMT não foi estabelecido para arsênio inorgânico, metilmercúrio e selênio. Este trabalho tem por objetivo avaliar a presença de arsênio total, arsênio inorgânico, mercúrio total, metilmercúrio e selênio em amostras de peixe cação comercializadas na cidade de São Paulo e analisar os resultados em relação à avaliação do risco. O arsênio total e o selênio foram determinados através de mineralização por via seca das amostras e quantificação utilizando absorção atômica com gerador de hidretos (FI-HG-AAS). O arsênio inorgânico foi determinado através de digestão ácida das amostras e posterior mineralização por via seca e quantificação utilizando FI-HG-AAS. O mercúrio total foi determinado através de digestão assistida por microondas em meio ácido e posterior quantificação do mercúrio total por espectrometria de fluorescência atômica com geração de vapor frio em fluxo contínuo (CV-AFS). O metilmercúrio foi determinado através de extração ácida das amostras e quantificação utilizando HPLC-termo-oxidação-CV-AFS. Os valores de As total nas amostras de cação analisadas variaram de 8,4 a 134,1 mg/kg (peso seco) e 2,1 a 33,5 mg/kg (peso úmido) e os valores de As inorgânico variaram de 0,013 a 0, 738 mg/kg (peso seco) e 0,0033 a 0,1845 mg/kg (peso úmido). Os valores de Hg total variaram de 0,7 a 14,6 mg/kg (peso seco) e 0,18 a 3,65 mg/kg (peso úmido). Os valores de metilmercúrio variaram de 0,46 a 8,67 mg/kg (peso seco) e 0,12 a 2,17 m/kg (peso úmido). Os valores de selênio variaram de 0,5 a 2,6 mg/kg (peso seco) e 0,13 a 0,65 mg/kg (peso úmido). Os valores de razão molar entre Hg e Se variaram de 0,28 a 5,39 (Hg:Se), e a média foi igual a 1,69. O PTWI para o arsênio inorgânico é 15 µg/kg de peso corpóreo (WHO, 1989), e assumindo uma média de peso corpóreo de 65kg, a ingestão de arsênio inorgânico proveniente do consumo de cação representa apenas 0,0007% do valor de referência TDI (Ingestão diária tolerável) para média brasileira. O PTWI para o Hg total é 5 µg/kg de peso corpóreo (WHO, 2003) e, a ingestão de Hg total por pessoa por dia proveniente apenas do consumo de cação para a média brasileira representa 0,17% do valor de referência TDI. / Metals of toxicological relevance from natural and anthropogenic sources continuously enter the aquatic ecosystem and cause serious environmental problems to human health and environment due to their toxicity, persistance, bioaccumulation and biomagnification in the food chain. Seafood metal contamination of is a public health interest. In Brasil, the Minister of Health establishes the maximum residue level (MRL) 1.0 mg/kg for arsenic in seafood and 0.5 for mercury and 1.0 for mercury in predator fish. The MRL was not stablished for inorganic arsenic, methylmercury and selenium. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the presence of total arsenic, inorganic arsenic, total mercury, methylmercury and selenium in shark samples commercialized in São Paulo city, and to evaluate their risk. The total arsenic and selenium were determined through sample dry ash and quantification by flow Injection -hydride generation-atomic absorption spectrometer (FI-HG-AAS). The inorganic arsenic was determined through sample acid digestion, ulterior dry ash and quantification by FI-HG-AAS. The total mercury was determined through sample acid digestion in microwave and quantification by atomic f1uorescence spectrophotometer with a cold vapor generator (CV-AFS). Methylmercury was determined by sample acid extraction and quantification by HPLC-termo-oxidation-CV-AFS. The levels of total arsenic vary between 8.4 and 134.1 mg/kg (dry weight) and 2.1 and 33.5 mg/kg (fresh weight) and levels of total inorganic arsenic vary between 0.013 and 0.738 mg/kg (dry weight) and 0.0033 and 0.1845 mg/kg (fresh weight). The levels of total mercury vary between 0.7 and 14.6 mg/kg (dry weight) and 0.18 and 3.65 mg/kg (fresh weight). The levels of methylmercury vary between 0.46 and 8.67 mg/kg (dry weight) and 0.12 and 2.17 m/kg (fresh weight). The levels of selenium vary between 0.5 and 2.6 mg/kg (dry weight) and 0.13 and 0.65 mg/kg (fresh weight). The values of molar reason between Hg and Se vary 0.28 and 5.39 (Hg:Se), and the media was 1.69. The PTWI for inorganic arsenic is 15 µg/kg body weight (WHO, 1989), and assuming an average body weight of 65 Kg, the ingestion of inorganic arsenic from shark ingestion represents only 0,0007% of the reference value TDI (Tolerable daily ingestion) for Brazilian media. The PTWI for total mercury is 5 µg/kg body weight (WHO, 2003) and the ingestion of total mercury per person per day from shark ingestion for Brazilian media represents 0.17% of the reference value TDI.

Com o objetivo de estudar o custo da produção segura, de salgados, em uma fábrica localizada no munícipio de Jundiaí, São Paulo, foi realizado um estudo de caso por observação de processos e registros, em planilhas de Excel, dos custos da produção do alimento seguro com a execução das Boas Práticas de Fabricação referente ao período de agosto de 2010 a julho de 2011 e posteriormente retirados os custos pertinentes as Boas Práticas de Fabricação para comparação entre ambas às situações. Também foram levantados os custos das obrigações legais e sua influência no resultado final do preço unitário. Para identificar os custos diretos de uma produção que assegura a qualidade do alimento, mantendo-o inócuo, foram utilizados os conceitos de custos variáveis. As contas foram agrupadas segundo seu destino de utilização. Foram estudadas também as mudanças de hábitos alimentares devido à mudança de comportamento, especialmente das mulheres que tem crescente participação nas atividades remuneradas, fora do lar. O perfil de consumo das famílias está mudando e com este o aumento de ocorrências de doenças causadas por contaminação alimentar, que segundo os autores estudados acontece com maior frequência do que se tem registrado de fato. Para entender melhor esta relação foi realizada uma pesquisa bibliográfica sobre a evolução do consumo, aumento da demanda de alimentos prontos para consumo, riscos de contaminação alimentar e doenças de origem alimentar, as normas técnicas, legislações e políticas públicas pertinentes à fabricação do alimento seguro que reúnem informações para melhorar a qualidade dos alimentos produzidos. Nos resultados encontrados os custos variáveis tiveram menor alteração em relação à simulação do não cumprimento das boas práticas de fabricação (BPF) e das obrigações legais, a maior influência foi sobre os custos fixos. A redução encontrada nos custos totais (soma dos custos variáveis com os fixos) para a situação onde os custos pertinentes ao cumprimento das BPF foram retirados foi de 5,8% e de 16,4% quando retirados os custos referentes às obrigações legais, que resulta na soma de 22,2% de diminuição dos custos, percentual este que favorece a produção caseira (informal), quando comparado com a produção formal. O resultado financeiro obtido quando cumpridas todas as exigências de BPF e obrigações legais foi negativo em 11,9% e na simulação da ausência destas práticas e exigências foi positivo em 17,5% (situação caseira e informal). Estes resultados estão relacionados com a utilização da capacidade produtiva instalada, que foi de 50%, equivalente a 43,9 t. e, portanto, existe ainda possibilidade de mudanças nos resultados ao atingir a capacidade ótima de produção. / With the aim of studying the cost of finger food safe production in a factory located in the municipality of Jundiaí, São Paulo, we conducted a case study by observation of processes and records, in Excel spreadsheets, of the cost of food safe production with the implementation of Good Manufacturing Practices for the period from August 2010 to July 2011 and subsequently withdrawn the costs involved with Good Manufacturing Practices for comparison between the two situations. We also raised the costs of legal obligations and its influence on the final result of the unit price. To identify the direct costs of production, which ensures the quality of food, keeping it harmless, we used the concepts of variable costs. The accounts were grouped according to their destination of use. We also studied the changes in eating habits due to behavior change, especially women who have increased participation in paid work outside home. The profile of household consumption is changing and consequently increased occurrences of diseases caused by contaminated food, which according to the authors studied happens more frequently than thought. To better understand this relationship we conducted a search on consumption trends, rising demand for ready to eat foods, risks of food contamination and foodborne diseases, technical standards, legislation and public policy pertinent to the manufacture of safe food to gather information to improve the quality of food produced. In the results the variable costs had less changes in relation to the simulation of non-compliance with good manufacturing practices (GMP) and legal obligations, the greatest influence was on the fixed costs. The reduction found in the total costs (sum of variable costs with fixed) where the costs pertaining to the enforcement of GMP were removed was 5.8% and 16.4% when taken out costs related to legal obligations, which sum results in a 22.2% decrease in costs, which favors home production (informal) when compared with the formal production. The financial result when met all the requirements of GMP and legal obligations was negative in 11.9% and in simulation and practical absence of these requirements was positive in 17.5% (homely and informal). These results are related to the utilization of the production capacity of 50%, equivalent to 43.9 tons, and therefore there is a possibility of changes in the results if optimum production is achieved.

Ovos e seus produtos derivados têm sido envolvidos em surtos de doenças transmitidas por alimentos devido à contaminação por Salmonella Enteritidis. A irradiação é uma das tecnologias existentes para a conservação de alimentos que poderia minimizar esse problema. O objetivo desta pesquisa foi determinar o efeito da irradiação sobre ovo líquido, ovo congelado, ovo em pó, gema em pó e clara em pó contaminados com Salmonella Enteritidis. As amostras de ovo líquido, clara em pó e gema em pó, inoculadas com S. Enteritidis, foram expostas a doses de 0,5; 1,0; 1,5; 2,0; 2,5; 3,0 kGy e as de ovo congelado e ovo em pó foram irradiadas com 0,5; 1,0; 1,5; 2,0; 2,5; 3,0; 3,5 e 4,0 kGy. Amostras não inoculadas e irradiadas e amostras não inoculadas e não irradiadas dos diferentes tipos de ovos foram testadas quanto ao odor cru, odor e sabor cozidos, cor, viscosidade e oxidação lipídica. Doses de 2,0; 3,0; 3,5; 3,0 e 3,5 kGy reduziram em 5 ciclos log a população de S. Enteritidis em ovo líquido, ovo congelado gema em pó, clara em pó e ovo em pó, respectivamente, com alterações levemente perceptíveis pelo painel de degustadores. A cor não sofreu alteração ou sofreu alteração moderada. As alterações mais intensas foram verificadas para viscosidade dos produtos em pó e para o aumento da concentração de malonaldeído em gema e ovo em pó. Portanto, o emprego da irradiação é factível para ovo líquido e congelado. Para os em pó, porém, deve ser ressaltado que a aplicação do processo está condicionada ao uso final do produto ao quais serão adicionados devido à alteração na viscosidade. / Eggs and their products have been incriminated in foodborne disease outbreaks due to Salmonella Enteritidis contamination. Irradiation is a food preservation technology that could be applied to minimize the problem. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of irradiation in liquid and frozen egg as well as in powdered egg, egg yolk and egg white spiked with Salmonella Enteritidis. Spiked samples of liquid egg, egg white and egg yolk were exposed to 0,5; 1,0; 1,5; 2,0; 2,5; 3,0 kGy and spiked samples of frozen and powdered egg were exposed to 0,5; 1,0; 1,5; 2,0; 2,5; 3,0; 3,5 e 4,0 kGy. Raw odour, cooked odour and taste of non inoculated and irradiated samples and non irradiated samples of egg and egg products were analysed by a trained panel. Viscosity and lipid oxidation (malonaldheyd concentration) were also determined. Doses of 2,0; 3,0; 3,5; 3,0 e 3,5 kGy reduced in 5 log the population of S. Enteritidis in liquid and frozen egg, powdered egg yolk, egg white and egg, respectively, with moderate alterations in relation to non irradiated samples detected by the trained panel. Viscosity and lipid oxidation in the powdered products, however, showed more intense alterations. Therefore, irradiation can be considered a feasible process for liquid and frozen egg while when applied to powdered products it should be considered the type of food product to which they will be added due to alterations in viscosity.

O Brasil é um dos principais exportadores de carne bovina. A maioria do gado é criada a pasto, porém uma parte já é confinada, como na criação de Novilhos Superprecoces. Este confinamento pode favorecer a contaminação por L. monocytogenes (Lm) do rebanho, bactéria responsável pela listeriose, doença que provoca aborto, neuropatias e gastrenterites. Com isto, pesquisou-se a presença e características sorotípicas e moleculares de Lm durante o confinamento de cinco raças de novilhos e em suas carcaças no frigorífico A, assim como amostras de carcaças, utensílios, equipamentos e ambiente em outro frigorífico (B). Foram utilizadas para tipar as cepas técnicas de sorotipagem por multiplex PCR, soroaglutinação e PFGE. Nenhuma Lm foi isolada nas 645 amostras do confinamento, sendo 13/48 carcaças dos novilhos, assim como amostras de piso e parede da câmara fria positivas para Lm no frigorífico A. Das 516 amostras do frigorífico B, 27 continham Lm, sendo a maioria proveniente da área limpa. Verificou-se que os sorotipos 1/2c e 4b foram os mais freqüentes no frigorífico A e o 1/2b e 1/2c no frigorífico B. A análise por PFGE forneceu 15 perfis Ascl, 13 Apal e 21 perfis compostos, caracterizando sete grupos clonais. Nesta cadeia produtiva de carne o principal ponto crítico para Lm está na área limpa do frigorífico e que cepas de mesmos grupos clonais puderam ser encontrados em ambos frigoríficos, assim como em áreas distintas do frigorífico B, demonstrando o alto poder de disseminação destas cepas. Portanto, estes resultados podem auxiliar no desenvolvimento de programas de boas práticas e HACCP para prevenir ou eliminar a contaminação por este patógeno. / Brazil is one of the most important beef producer/exporter country worldwide. The majority of the cattle is raised extensively, but some of them are feedloted. Confinement conditions can stress the animals and favor the contamination and proliferation for Listeria monocytogenes (Lm), agent of listeriosis which causes abortion, stillbirths, nervous dysfunctions and gastroenteritis. The aim of this study was to verify the presence of this microorganism and its molecular and serotype characteristics. Two groups of samples were analyzed: first, during the confinement of five different breeds of steers and on their carcasses (abattoir A). Second, at the slaughter and processing of other groups of beef cattle (abattoir B). The Lm strains were serotyped with commercial antisera and by multiplex PCR, and subtyped by PFGE. No Lm was found among the 645 samples of feces, environment, feed and water during the confinement, but 13/48 of the refrigerated carcasses were contaminated, as well as the floor and the wall of the cold room at the abattoir A. Amongst the 516 samples of slaughter and processing environments, carcasses, utensils and equipment collected from abattoir B, 27 harbored Lm, being the majority from the c1ean area. Serotype 1/2b and 4b were the most frequent Lm serotypes in the carcasses of the steers in abattoir 1, and 1/2b and 1/2c in the abattoir B. The molecular typing by PFGE resulted in 15 Ascl and 13 Apal profiles, and 21 composite profiles, resulting in seven clonal groups. In these beef production chains the most important critical point for Lm contamination is the c1ean area of meat processing. Same clonal groups could be isolated in both abattoirs and in different areas on abattoir B, demonstrating high dissemination capability of these strains. Therefore, these results could aid the development of good manufacturing practices and HACCP, to prevent or eliminate the contamination for this pathogen.

This doctoral thesis investigates the application of laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) for detection of labeled biomolecules on nitrocellulose paper. Nitrocellulose paper is a material often used for assays involving the concentration and labeling of a target analyte, followed by label detection. Among paper-based diagnostics are lateral-flow immuno-assays (LFIAs). Research efforts have made LFIAs into accessible, portable,and low-cost tools for detecting targets such as allergens, toxins,and microbes in food and water.Gold (Au) nanoparticles are standard biomolecular labels among LFIAs, typically detected via colorimetric means.Other labels, such as quantum dots, are also often metallic, and research is ongoing to expand the number of portable instrumentations applied to their detection. A wide diversity of lanthanide-complexed polymers (LCPs) are used as immunoassay labels but have been inapt for portable paper-based assays owing to lab-bound detection instrumentation, until now. LIBS is a multi-element characterization technique which has recently developed from a bench-top to a portable/hand-held analytical tool. This is among the first studies to show that LCPs can be considered as options for biomolecule labels in paper-based assays using bench-based and hand-held LIBS as label detection modalities.<div>Chapter one reviews the importance of rapid, multiplexed detection of chemical and biological contaminants, the application of current biosensors, and the role of LIBS as an emerging biosensor. Paper-based bioassays were identified as a promising approach for contaminant detection whose capabilities could be enhanced by LIBS. The next chapter dives into LIBS system designs to address which LIBS parameters were appropriate for label detection on paper assay material. A balance of LIBS parameters was found to be important for successful analyte detection. Chaptert hree optimizes a LIBS design for sensitive detection of 17 metals and establishes limit of detection values for 7 metals. Optimal detection parameters depended on the metal being detected and were applied to the objective of the final chapter: LIBS detection of labeled antigen immobilized on a paper-based assay. Both antibody and bacteria detection assays were successfully performed and analyzed using bench top and portable LIBS,suggesting an exciting future for the use of LIBS as a biosensor.The prospect of using LIBS for multiplexed, rapid and sensitive detection of biomolecules in assays is explored, laying grounds for future work in the ever-relevant field of biological and chemical hazard detection.<br></div>

Thesis (M. Tech. Environmental health) -- Central University of technology, Free State, 2011 / Millions of people in South Africa eat out every day, utilising the food service sector. Although the lack of an effective reporting system makes it difficult to know how many of these people suffer from food-borne illness, statistics from the developed countries show that this number may be significant. There is, therefore, the need to ensure that the food service sector, which encompasses fast food outlets, hotels and similar accommodation outlets offering food and beverage services, restaurants, caterers, etc., implement effective food safety management systems. Internationally, the trend has been that food safety management systems should be based on the internationally accepted Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) principles. In South Africa, the implementation of HACCP as a food safety management system has been driven by international trade requirements where foods are exported to countries such as the European Union or the United States of America. A national regulation requiring HACCP implementation was promulgated in 2003, but compliance is not yet required for the food service sector. Currently, neither of the above mentioned factors put adequate pressure on the food service sector to implement formal food safety management systems. However, increasing international tourism and the hosting of international sporting events has brought this sector under scrutiny. Food handlers have been implicated in many outbreaks of food-borne illness and much research has been done to investigate causal factors in this regard. Food handler training has been proposed as a strategy to improve food safety practices. However, research has shown that the traditional provision of food safety and food hygiene knowledge does not equate to improved food safety behaviours. Some authors postulate that the organisational context, created largely by the management of an organisation, is of greater significance than training. Less research is available on these management factors – defined as the situational factors when discussing organisational culture, or defined as enabling and reinforcing factors when discussing food handler behaviour. This study commenced with the hypothesis that food handlers are not able to implement the correct food safety behaviours in the absence of sufficient management support. This support would require appropriate policies regarding food safety, the provision of training and infrastructure and enforcing the correct behaviours by line management, as a minimum. The aim of this study was to investigate and assess the role of line management in relation to food safety at a prominent South African entertainment facility. In order to achieve this, the following objectives were defined for the study: to conduct a qualitative assessment of the role of management in food safety, to assess the role of management in the provision of food safety training and to assess the role of management in the provision of a basic hygiene infrastructure at the study site in order to allow food handlers to carry out the correct behaviours. The objective of conducting a qualitative study of management practices, policies and resource provision with respect to food safety revealed that there was no formal evidence of management commitment to food safety other than the recent provision of food handler training. The findings also indicated a lack of a formal management system for food safety at the study site. In the exploratory survey of food safety training and knowledge, results showed that only 60 % of staff in the survey had received training. This indicates that at the time of the survey, the study site did not fully comply with the minimum legal requirements for food handler training. The results of the employee survey further indicated that employees were aware of the importance of hand washing although it was not possible to determine whether this knowledge was as a result of the training intervention or prior knowledge. Many of the supervisors were not yet trained in food safety and the impact of the food safety training intervention on related behaviours at the site will require further in-depth assessment. Upon investigating the food hygiene infrastructure provided at the study site to allow food handlers to carry out the correct behaviours, findings indicated that although the personnel hygiene programme addressed most of best practice requirements in design, the implementation of the hand washing requirements was not aligned with accepted norms due to the lack of sufficient hand wash basins. The provision of facilities such as sufficient and conveniently located hand wash basins is a management function and findings suggest that, as a priority, management should ensure that they are not contributing to the lack of implementation of the correct food safety behaviours of food handlers as a result of failing to provide the necessary resources. The results of this study should be of value in the food service sector, specifically hotel kitchens, as a guideline to ensure that management plays an effective role in facilitating food safety management systems. A robust food safety and food hygiene training programme for all levels of the organisation is essential in ensuring adequate knowledge of food safety hazards and correct practices. Training should be supported by daily supervision of food safety controls, management commitment and a work environment that supports the implementation of the correct behaviours. Literature has shown that undesirable practices are often deeply rooted in kitchen culture. It has further been commented that culture changes require a top-down approach which usually involves working with the leadership of the organisation. Important policies and procedures generally originate from the management tiers and will always require the concurrence of management in providing resources, altering priorities or otherwise changing how things are done in the organisation. The results of this study are invaluable in highlighting areas in an organisation that could be targeted to change the kitchen culture. Such changes are primarily the responsibility of management. Ultimately, this study endeavours to contribute to the body of knowledge pointing to the role of social-behavioural aspects in ensuring food safety and thereby consumer well-being.

Thesis (M. Tech. Environmental health) -- Central University of technology, Free State, 2011 / In nature microorganisms do not exist alone, but in association with one another. These kinds of associations can also be found in food industries, where cells of the same or different species can attach to pipes (biofilm formation) and a variety of surfaces in food processing environments and in food product such as yoghurt which can contain both yeast and bacteria originating from the starter culture as well as fruit. To control food spoilage organisms and food-borne pathogens preventative measures such as good manufacturing processes, the use of sanitizers and preservatives as well as hazard analysis critical control points (HACCP) are crucial in food industries. Sanitation of the working surface, floors, pipes, containers and equipment is a stepwise application of a detergent, acid or alkali rinse, a disinfectant treatment followed by final rinsing. If rinsing of the sanitizer is not done properly it may end up in the product in sub-lethal doses. In this study the influence of Liquid Hypochlorite (LH) and Liquid Iodophore (LI) sanitizers on organism growth and toxicity was evaluated. The organisms investigated included Escherichia coli 0113, Escherichia coli 026 and Zygosaccharomyces bailii Y-1535 in yeast malt broth, which was supplemented with LH and LI at sub-lethal concentrations 0.05% LH, 0.2% LH and 0.075% LI. Subsequently, bacterial and yeast growth responses as pure cultures and in combination (E. coli + Z. bailii) were measured as colony forming units and optical density values. Incorporation of the sanitizers in the growth media resulted in different levels of growth inhibition. Z. bailii proved more robust and the growth rate was not influence significantly by the addition of sanitizers or communal growth with either E. coli strains. The growth rate of both E. coli strains decreased where grown in combination with Z. bailii as well as in the presence of sanitizers, with the most influence exerted by LH. Changes in endotoxicity following the growth of the test samples (stressed cells) and the control (unstressed) were measured by the limulus amoebocyte lysate (LAL) and porcine IL-6 ELISA methods. Where E. coli strains were cultured together with Z. bailii the toxicity of tire mixture showed a decrease over time when measured with the limulus amoebocyte assay method. Interestingly the communal growth of the E. coli strains and Z bailii produced different toxicity profiles when the IL-6 porcine method was used, hi both cases, where E. coli strains were cultured together with Z. bailii the toxicity of the mixture showed an increase over tune when measured by this assay. Other than a similar toxicity profile for E. coli 0113 grown in pure culture, the comparison between results obtained using the LAL or porcine IL-6 methods yielded no correlation in determined toxicity. It was established that LH and LI sanitizers as well as communal growth had an influence in the toxicity of LPS/EPS and the method used to determine such toxicity should be carefully considered.

Thesis (D. Tech. Environmental health) -- Central University of technology, Free State, 2011 / Apart from being the primary food source of many cultures around the world, fish contains notable amounts of essential fatty acids that are required by the human body, thus making fish a vital part of the human diet. In South Africa Cape hake is a well-known and highly consumed local fish species, which is transported from coastal areas countrywide where the fresh fish are displayed on ice in various retail stores. Fish is known to be highly susceptible to spoilage and, as a result, the maintenance of the cold-chain in related products is of particular importance. Additionally, recent trends showing a decline in natural fish resources have instigated growing concerns about the sustainability and optimal utilisation of fish as a food source. Against this backdrop, this study aimed at determining the influence of storage parameters on selected triglycerides and their possible metabolic pathways. Also applying prediction modelling of fatty acids and volatiles as instruments to assess exposure of Cape hake fillets to excessive microbial contamination and, in effect, be indicative of the environmental parameters (for example temperature) that may influence such contamination. Randomly selected juvenile hakes were filleted and stored under various simulated retail storage conditions, under either controlled or uncontrolled environmental conditions. For each hake filleted, one fillet was inoculated with an increased load of autochthonous microbiota, and the corresponding fillet was kept at similar temperature conditions. All fillets were monitored over a ten day period, during which fatty acid and volatile samples were collected and analysed. From the resulting triglycerides a selection of fatty acids were profiled and their possible metabolic pathways investigated. Fish maturity, the distribution of the fatty acids and the implication thereof in the nutritional value were also assessed. Conventional chemometric methods utilising mathematical expressions were subsequently utilised in order to predict contamination and whether the cold chain was sustained, while an artificial neural network (ANNs) were designed to predict excessive microbial contamination in the fillets. The results showed that the nutritional value of fish differs notably with its maturity and size. Mathematical equations were furthermore found to be effective assessment instruments to indicate the percentage differences in storage temperature, as well as consequent microbial influences. Thus, this approach may introduce mathematical prediction modelling as a promising mechanism to assess Cape hake spoilage. An artificial neural network (ANN) was successfully designed, that succeeded in distinguishing between Cape hake fillets displayed and stored on ice that have been exposed to excessive contamination and those that have not been exposed. In the latter case, the selected variable was a fatty acid, hexadecanoic acid, used as biochemical indicator. This modulating approach may provide a platform for future shelf-life studies on related muscle tissue. Ultimately, the study endeavoured to add to the body of knowledge regarding the biochemical and microbiological changes related to Cape hake storage, the prediction thereof via contemporary methods and contributing to the safety and effective utilization of this unique and declining South African nutritional resource.

Arsenic is a naturally occurring toxic metal and its presence in food composites could be a potential risk to the health of both humans and animals. Arseniccontaminated groundwater is often used for food and animal consumption, irrigation of soils, which could potentially lead to arsenic entering the human food chain. Its side effects include multiple organ damage, cancers, heart disease, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, lung disease and peripheral vascular disease. Research investigations, epidemiologic surveys and total diet studies (market baskets) provide datasets, information and knowledge on arsenic content in foods. The determination of the concentration of arsenic in rice varieties is an active area of research. With the increasing capability to measure the concentration of arsenic in foods, there are volumes of varied and continuously generated datasets on arsenic in food groups. Visual analytics, which integrates techniques from information visualization and computational data analysis via interactive visual interfaces, presents an approach to enable data on arsenic concentrations to be visually represented. The goal of this doctoral research in Environmental Science is to address the need to provide visual analytical decision support tools on arsenic content in various foods with special emphasis on rice. The hypothesis of this doctoral thesis research is that software enabled visual representation and user interaction facilitated by visual interfaces will help discover hidden relationships between arsenic content and food categories. The specific objectives investigated were: (1) Provide insightful visual analytic views of compiled data on arsenic in food categories; (2) Categorize table ready foods by arsenic content; (3) Compare arsenic content in rice product categories and (4) Identify informative sentences on arsenic concentrations in rice. The overall research method is secondary data analyses using visual analytics techniques implemented through Tableau Software. Several datasets were utilized to conduct visual analytical representations of data on arsenic concentrations in foods. These consisted of (i) arsenic concentrations in 459 crop samples; (ii) arsenic concentrations in 328 table ready foods from multi-year total diet studies; (iii) estimates of daily inorganic arsenic intake for 49 food groups from multicountry total diet studies; (iv) arsenic content in rice product categories for 193 samples of rice and rice products; (v) 758 sentences extracted from PubMed abstracts on arsenic in rice. Several key insights were made in this doctoral research. The concentration of inorganic arsenic in instant rice was lower than those of other rice types. The concentration of Dimethylarsinic Acid (DMA) in wild rice, an aquatic grass, was notably lower than rice varieties (e.g. 0.0099 ppm versus 0.182 for a long grain white rice). The categorization of 328 table ready foods into 12 categories enhances the communication on arsenic concentrations. Outlier concentration of arsenic in rice were observed in views constructed for integrating data from four total diet studies. The 193 rice samples were grouped into two groups using a cut-off level of 3 mcg of inorganic arsenic per serving. The visual analytics views constructed allow users to specify cut-off levels desired. A total of 86 sentences from 53 PubMed abstracts were identified as informative for arsenic concentrations. The sentences enabled literature curation for arsenic concentration and additional supporting information such as location of the research. An informative sentence provided global “normal” range of 0.08 to 0.20 mg/kg for arsenic in rice. A visual analytics resource developed was a dashboard that facilitates the interaction with text and a connection to the knowledge base of the PubMed literature database. The research reported provides a foundation for additional investigations on visual analytics of data on arsenic concentrations in foods. Considering the massive and complex data associated with contaminants in foods, the development of visual analytics tools are needed to facilitate diverse human cognitive tasks. Visual analytics tools can provide integrated automated analysis; interaction with data; and data visualization critically needed to enhance decision making. Stakeholders that would benefit include consumers; food and health safety personnel; farmers; and food producers. Arsenic content of baby foods warrants attention because of the early life exposures that could have life time adverse health consequences. The action of microorganisms in the soil is associated with availability of arsenic species for uptake by plants. Genomic data on microbial communities presents wealth of data to identify mitigation strategies for arsenic uptake by plants. Arsenic metabolism pathways encoded in microbial genomes warrants further research. Visual analytics tasks could facilitate the discovery of biological processes for mitigating arsenic uptake from soil. The increasing availability of central resources on data from total diet studies and research investigations presents a need for personnel with diverse levels of skills in data management and analysis. Training workshops and courses on the foundations and applications of visual analytics can contribute to global workforce development in food safety and environmental health. Research investigations could determine learning gains accomplished through hardware and software for visual analytics. Finally, there is need to develop and evaluate informatics tools that have visual analytics capabilities in the domain of contaminants in foods. / Environmental Sciences / P. Phil. (Environmental Science)