Assessing the short-term socio-economic impacts of climate-led disasters on food trade networks requires new bottom-up models and vulnerability metrics rooted in complexity theory. Indeed, such shocks could generate cascading socio-economic losses across the networks layers where emerging agents¿ responses could trigger tipping points. We contribute to address this research gap by developing a multi-layer behavioral network methodology composed of multiple spatially-explicit layers populated by heterogeneous interacting agents. Then, by introducing a new multi-layer risk measure called vulnerability rank, or VRank, we quantify the stress in the aftermath of a shock. Our approach allows us to analyze both the supply- and the demand-side dimensions of the shock by quantifying short-term behavioral responses, the transmission channels across the layers, the conditions for reaching tipping points, and the feedback on macroeconomic indicators. By simulating a stylized two-layer supply-side production and demand-side household network model we find that, (i) socio-economic vulnerability to climate-led disasters is cyclical, (ii) the distribution of shocks depends critically on the network structure, and on the speed of supply-side and demand-side responses. Our results suggest that such a multi-layer framework could provide a comprehensive picture of how climate-led shocks cascade and how indirect losses can be measured. This is crucial to inform effective post-disaster policies aimed to build food trade network resilience to climate-led shocks, in particular in more agriculture-dependent bread-basket regions. / Series: Ecological Economic Papers

在食品貿易全球化的趨勢下，食源性疾病將隨著跨國貿易而擴散，如何在促進貿易的同時亦確保人類食用之安全，即為當今重要之議題。WTO作為涵蓋最多貿易經濟體，並係目前處理國際貿易規則的唯一全球貿易國際組織，對於食品安全與貿易議題，在SPS協定第4條訂有「同等效力」規範作為權衡兩種利益之對策。在國際食品貿易領域下，同等效力係指若進口國對於出口國所採「相異」於進口國本身之SPS措施，如出口國之SPS措施達到與進口國國內「相同」的保護水準，即可認定出口國之措施具備同等效力而承認之，而非要求出口國採用與進口國完全一致之SPS措施。 國際間依據該規範，尤以美國及歐盟為例，實施「輸入前系統性查核機制」，即在食品輸入前先行對出口國之食品安全體系及政府監督措施進行審查，經評估後判定其保護水準與進口國具備同等效力後，該出口國始得出口食品，大幅提升食品安全之保護水準。我國亦順應該趨勢，於民國103年2月11日由衛生福利部公布施行〈輸入食品系統性查核實施辦法〉，將食品安全管制時點從邊境提前至境外。 為瞭解我國規範是否完善，本文將利用比較法的方式，先了解各該國際規範以及美國與歐盟兩大食品貿易國之規範內容，並檢視我國系統性查核機制並提出可能之建議。本文以為，我國已具備同等效力之基本運作架構，惟細部的運作規則、如何判斷同等效力、如何確保後續同等效力之維持，並無明確之規定。故本文建議應先健全我國系統性查核機制之運作及法律機制，以備將來擴大適用。 / With the trend of international trade in food products, foodborne illnesses spread through cross-border trade. Therefore, how to ensure food safety of human consumption while facilitating trade is the most critical issue nowadays. As the only international organization dealing with the global rules of trade between nations, the WTO SPS agreement article 4 provides the “equivalence” mechanism as a way to balance the rights between trade and food safety. In the field of international food trade, the equivalence means that SPS measures does not require duplication or sameness of measures between exporting and importing Members, but the acceptance of alternative measures that meet importing Member's appropriate level of sanitary or phytosanitary protection. Based on the provisions governing equivalence mechanism, each state would implement ante systematic audit, via reviewing food safety system and monitoring measures adopted by competent authorities of exporting party before the importation of food products. As long as the importing state makes a positive determination recognizing of the appropriate level of protection has been achieved, the food products from exporting party are eligible to export to the market of importing state. Such mechanism facilitates cross-border trade in food products and secures the interests of food safety. With this trend, our government enacted the Regulations for Systematic Inspection of Imported Food in recent years. This thesis tries to review the soundness of current Regulation through comparative analysis with international rules and regulations of the US as well as EU. The conclusion is that our system lacks of the specific rules for operation, determination of equivalence and the assurance of the equivalent persistency. Consequently, our government should set up these core elements before transforming current rules to a more comprehensive mechanism in the future.

Las exportaciones latinoamericanas de alimentos han aumentado sostenidamente en los últimos años, así como también habrían crecido las exigencias relativas a medidas sanitarias, fitosanitarias y técnicas, sobre todo en sus principales mercados de destino: Estados Unidos y la Unión Europea. El no cumplir con estos requisitos a la producción pone en riesgo el acceso a los mercados internacionales, afectando particularmente a los países de la región por ser exportadores netos de productos alimentarios. En este contexto, la presente investigación tiene por objeto describir la situación actual de las exportaciones alimentarias latinoamericanas relativa al cumplimiento de los requisitos sanitarios, fitosanitarios y técnicos, considerando el caso particular de los productos hortofrutícolas. Para ello, se llevaron a cabo los siguientes objetivos específicos: a) describir la situación actual y evolución reciente de las exportaciones hortofrutícolas latinoamericanas hacia EEUU y la UE, b) describir el funcionamiento del Sistema de Control de Alimentos importados en ambos mercados, c) analizar las tendencias actuales de las notificaciones a productos hortofrutícolas por violación a los requerimientos ya mencionados y, d) sugerir recomendaciones acordes a la información levantada. Los resultados indican que el país con el mayor número de notificaciones por violación a los requisitos estadounidenses, es por mucho México. Sin embargo, Guatemala y Perú presentan rechazos en frontera importantes en este mercado. En conjunto, la principal violación notificada por EEUU es la presencia de pesticidas y, los productos más afectados, fueron pimientos frescos, espárragos, tubérculos, papayas, berries, uvas y bananas. Por otra parte, la UE presentó mayores notificaciones para Argentina, Brasil y República Dominicana, principalmente por presencia de aflatoxinas u otras fallas relativas a condiciones de almacenaje y transporte inadecuados, que habrían afectado principalmente envíos de leguminosas, tubérculos y frutos secos. Finalmente, se concluye que, a pesar del incremento en exigencias sanitarias, fitosanitarias y técnicas, al menos este escenario no habría provocado mayores notificaciones por violación. No obstante, de igual modo es necesario trabajar en políticas que permitan fortalecer la calidad e inocuidad de los alimentos producidos, sobre todo considerando los requisitos crecientes, pese a que, en términos generales, para la mayor parte de los países latinoamericanos sus productos hortofrutícolas no parecen ser percibidos como riesgosos. / In the past few years Latin American food exports have steadily increased as have the requirements concerning sanitary, phytosanitary and technical measures, especially in its main target markets: the United States of America and the European Union. Failure to comply with these requirements in production puts the access to international markets at risk, particularly affecting the countries of the region as they are net exporters of food products. In this context, the present study aims to describe the current situation of Latin American food exports relative to the fulfilment of sanitary, phytosanitary and technical requirements, and in particular fruit and vegetables. To this end, the following specific objectives were included in this study: a) describe the current situation and recent evolution of Latin American fruit and vegetable exports to the US and the EU, b) describe how the Food Imports Control System operates in both markets, c) analyze the current trends in notifications of horticultural products for violation of the previously mentioned requirements and, d) suggest recommendations according to the information presented in in the previous three points. The results indicate that the country with the largest number of notifications for violation of the U.S. requirements is Mexico by far. However, Guatemala and Peru both show important rejections at border in this market. Altogether, the main violation as notified by the US is the presence of pesticides, and the most affected products were fresh peppers, asparagus, tubers, papayas, berries, grapes, and bananas. On the other hand, the EU gave more notifications to Argentina, Brazil, and the Dominican Republic, mainly for the presence of aflatoxins or other failures relating to inadequate storage and transport conditions, which would have mainly affected shipments of legumes, tubers, and nuts. Finally, I conclude that despite the increase in sanitary, phytosanitary, and technical requirements, a greater number of violation notifications was not observed even though the increased regulations affect a higher percentage of fruit and vegetable shipments from leading regional exporters. However, policies that allow the strengthening of the quality and safety of foods produced must be introduced, especially considering the increased requirements, despite the fact that, generally speaking, the fruit and vegetables of most Latin American do not seem to be perceived as risky.

Tesis por compendio / The effect of Non-Tariff Measures (NTMs) on agri-food trade has drawn broad research interest and gained a substantial attention by scientific community as well as by policy makers. Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) standards among others represent a major challenge for trade policy and food safety. The identification and measurement of the economic implications of NTMs require the use of an adequate both methodological and empirical framework to derive sound estimates. By targeting economic sectors and issues not previously investigated, this Thesis contributes to previous literature on determining the factors that affect the implementation of SPS and their effects on trade flows. Four specific objectives have been pursued in four papers that constitute the main body of the present Thesis. The main purpose of the first paper is to investigate the scope of the reputation effect over time. To do so, we use The European Union (EU)'s Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF) data on sanitary and phytosanitary notifications from 1998 to 2013. Two count data models have been implemented to estimate the distribution of current notifications. In line with previous literature, our findings indicate that reputation does affect current EU notifications. Furthermore, we identify some relevant exporter countries for which reputation is long-lasting. The second paper aims at analyzing the behavior of the EU in controlling Aflatoxin (AF) contamination with respect to tree nuts and groundnuts for the period (1998-2015). To conduct this analysis, we have used a count data model, based on political economy considerations, past alerts and path dependence effects. Policy changes, including harmonization of AF standards and their further relaxing are estimated to have significant impact on the frequency of border controls. In the third paper, we seek to assess the influencing factors on food standard enforcement in the EU with a special attention to agri-food imports from Mediterranean countries. We explore if there is any special treatment toward Mediterranean countries in controlling agri-food imports, testing if past border notifications affect current decisions on the implementation of food standards by the EU. RASFF notifications data over the period 2000-2012, and count data models are used for this purpose. Our empirical results support the hypothesis that previous food notifications may slightly affect current notifications; nevertheless, this effect seems to be less relevant for products of interest for Mediterranean Partner Countries. Hence, we cannot identify a pro or anti Mediterranean bias in the way that food safety controls are implemented at the EU borders. The last paper focuses on the assessment of the competitiveness of the Tunisian agri-food sector before signing the Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Agreement (DCFTA) with the EU. Specifically, competitive advantage measurement, based on the Tunisian National Institute of Statistics (INS) data over 2007-2012 period, has been used for this purpose. The analysis of the Tunisian agri-food sector reveals an important potential for exporting some agri-food staples. Recently, Tunisia is facing new challenges in exporting strategic products underlying the importance of adopting new business and marketing strategies or prospecting new markets. However, some agri-food subsectors, mainly animal products, milk and dairy products and cereals, remain unprepared to overcome the costs of the DCFTA due to their low competitiveness. Hence, Tunisian authorities could propose a progressive trade liberalization strategy with the EU. / El efecto de las medidas no arancelarias sobre el comercio agroalimentario ha generado un amplio interés en la investigación y ha recibido una atención considerable por parte de la comunidad científica y de los políticos de comercio. Las Medidas Sanitarias y Fitosanitarias (MSP), entre otras, representan un reto importante para la política comercial y la inocuidad de los alimentos. La identificación y medición de las implicaciones económicas de las MNT requieren el uso de un marco metodológico o empírico adecuado para derivar estimaciones sólidas. Al enfocarse en sectores económicos y temas no investigados previamente, esta tesis contribuye a la literatura previa sobre la determinación de los factores que afectan la implementación del MSP. La tesis estudia cuatro cuestiones principales que se reflejan en cuatro artículos científicos independientes, que constituyen el elemento central de la misma. El principal objetivo del primer artículo es el de investigar el efecto reputación a lo largo del tiempo. Para ello, utilizamos los datos RASFF para el periodo 1998-2013. Se han implementado dos modelos de datos de recuento para estimar la distribución de las notificaciones actuales. De acuerdo con la literatura anterior, nuestras conclusiones indican que la reputación afecta a las notificaciones actuales de la UE. Además, identificamos algunos países exportadores relevantes cuya reputación es duradera. El segundo artículo analiza el comportamiento de la UE en el control de la contaminación por Aflatoxina (AF) con respecto a los frutos secos entre el periodo 1998 y 2015. Para llevar a cabo este análisis, hemos utilizado un modelo de datos de recuento, basado en consideraciones de economía política, alertas pasadas y efectos de dependencia de trayectoria. Se estima que los cambios en las políticas, incluida la armonización de las normas AF y su posterior relajación, tienen un impacto significativo en la frecuencia de los controles en las fronteras. En el tercer artículo, tratamos de evaluar los factores que influyen en la aplicación de normas alimentarias en la UE prestando especial atención a las importaciones agroalimentarias procedentes de países mediterráneos. Así, estudiamos si hay algún tratamiento especial hacia los países mediterráneos en el control de las importaciones agroalimentarias, contrastando si las notificaciones pasadas afectan las decisiones actuales sobre la aplicación de las normas alimentarias por parte de la UE. Los datos de las notificaciones RASFF durante el período 2000-2012 y los modelos de datos de recuento se utilizan para este fin. Nuestros resultados empíricos apoyan la hipótesis de que las notificaciones anteriores pueden afectar ligeramente a las notificaciones actuales. Sin embargo, este efecto parece ser menos relevante para los productos procedentes de los países mediterráneos. Por lo tanto, no podemos identificar un comportamiento pro o anti mediterráneo en la forma en que se implementan controles de seguridad alimentaria en las fronteras de la UE.El último documento se centra en la evaluación de la competitividad del sector agroalimentario tunecino antes de firmar el Acuerdo de Libre Comercio Profundo y Amplio con la UE. Concretamente, se han utilizado indicadores de las ventajas competitivas, basándose en los datos del INS para el período 2007-2012. El análisis del sector agroalimentario tunecino revela un importante potencial de exportación de algunos productos básicos agroalimentarios. Recientemente, Túnez se enfrenta a nuevos retos en la exportación de productos estratégicos subrayando la importancia de adoptar nuevas estrategias comerciales y de comercialización o prospección de nuevos mercados. Sin embargo, algunos subsectores agroalimentarios, principalmente productos de origen animal, leche y productos lácteos y cereales, siguen sin estar preparados para soportar los costos del acuerdo de libre comercio profundo y completo debido / L'efecte de les mesures no aranzelàries (MNT) sobre el comerç agroalimentari ha generat un ampli interés en la investigació i ha rebut una atenció considerable per part de la comunitat científica i dels polítics de comerç. Les Mesures Sanitàries i Fitosanitàries (MSP) , entre altres, representen un repte important per a la política comercial i la innocuïtat dels aliments. La identificació i mesurament de les implicacions econòmiques de les MNT requerixen l'ús d'un marc metodològic o empíric adequat per a derivar estimacions sòlides. A l'enfocar-se en sectors econòmics i temes no investigats prèviament, esta tesi contribuïx a la literatura prèvia sobre la determinació dels factors que afecten la implementació del MSF. La tesi estudia quatre qüestions principals que es reflectixen en quatre articles científics independents, que constituïxen l'element central de la mateixa. El principal objectiu del primer article és el d'investigar l'efecte reputació al llarg del temps. Per a això, utilitzem les dades RASFF per al període 1998-2013. S'han implementat dos models de dades de recompte per a estimar la distribució de les notificacions actuals. D'acord amb la literatura anterior, les nostres conclusions indiquen que la reputació afecta les notificacions actuals de la UE. A més, identifiquem alguns països exportadors rellevants la reputació de les quals és duradora. El segon article analitza el comportament de la UE en el control de la contaminació per Aflatoxina (AF) respecte a les fruites seques entre el període 1998 i 2015. Per a dur a terme esta anàlisi, hem utilitzat un model de dades de recompte, basat en consideracions d'economia política, alertes passades i efectes de dependència de trajectòria. S'estima que els canvis en les polítiques, inclosa l'harmonització de les normes AF i la seua posterior relaxació, tenen un impacte significatiu en la freqüència dels controls en les fronteres. En el tercer article, tractem d'avaluar els factors que influïxen en l'aplicació de normes alimentàries en la UE, prestant especial atenció a les importacions agroalimentàries procedents de països mediterranis. Així, estudiem si hi ha algun tractament especial cap als països mediterranis en el control de les importacions agroalimentàries, contrastant si les notificacions passades afecten les decisions actuals sobre l'aplicació de les normes alimentàries per part de la UE. Les dades de les notificacions RASFF durant el període 2000-2012 i els models de dades de recompte s'utilitzen per a este fi. Els nostres resultats empírics recolzen la hipòtesi que les notificacions anteriors poden afectar lleugerament les notificacions actuals. No obstant això, este efecte pareix menys rellevant per als productes procedents dels països mediterranis. Per tant, no podem identificar un comportament pro o anti mediterrani en la forma en què s'implementen controls de seguretat alimentària en les fronteres de la UE. L'últim document se centra en l'avaluació de la competitivitat del sector agroalimentari tunisenc abans de firmar l'Acord de Lliure Comerç Profund i Ampli amb la UE. Concretament, s'ha utilitzat indicadors dels avantatges competitius, basant-se en les dades de l'INS per al període 2007-2012. L'anàlisi del sector agroalimentari tunisenc revela un important potencial d'exportació d'alguns productes bàsics agroalimentaris. Recentment, Tunis s'enfronta a nous reptes en l'exportació de productes estratègics subratllant la importància d'adoptar noves estratègies comercials i de comercialització o prospecció de nous mercats. No obstant això, alguns subsectors agroalimentaris, principalment productes d'origen animal, llet i productes lactis i cereals, seguixen sense estar preparats per a suportar els costos de l'ALCD a causa de la seua baixa competitivitat. Per tant, les autoritats tunisenques podrien proposar una estratègia progres / Taghouti, I. (2017). A political economy approach to measuring EU food standard enforcement and their implications on agri-food trade [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/89095 / Compendio

A presente dissertação, apresentada em dois estudos, buscou verificar as condições de boas práticas de higiene e manipulação (BPHM) e de infraestrutura (IE) de oito restaurantes/lanchonetes e de sete pontos de comércio ambulante localizados na Cidade Universitária Armando de Salles Oliveira (CUASO-USP) e a qualidade higiênico-sanitária de 45 amostras de alimentos prontos para o consumo colhidas nos mesmos. O primeiro estudo traz uma abordagem exploratória e qualitativa através da aplicação de listas de verificação; o segundo analisa laboratorialmente aspectos higiênico-sanitários dos alimentos comercializados pelos estabelecimentos alvo do estudo anterior. Concluiu-se que 1) os estabelecimentos de comércio alimentício da CUASO-USP apresentaram índices regulares de cumprimento de BPHM e adequação de IE, sendo que o eixo de higiene e manipulação de alimentos mostrou-se em melhor situação quando comparado ao de infraestrutura; 2) os ambulantes analisados apresentaram melhores resultados no cumprimento das normas de BPHM e IE e na avaliação das condições higiênico-sanitárias quando comparados aos estabelecimentos fixos de comércio alimentício. Constatou-se que é possível a prática do comércio de alimentos de rua com qualidade higiênico-sanitária, sem caracterizar uma ameaça à saúde publica, desde que o empreendedor conheça e aplique os procedimentos necessários e críticos à obtenção da garantia dos produtos comercializados, assumindo responsabilidade social ao realizar o seu modo de produção mercantil simples, porém comprometido moralmente com a sociedade. / This investigate, presented in two studies, examined the good hygiene practices and handling (GHPH) and the infrastructure (IS) conditions from eight restaurants and seven street vendors located in University City Armando de Salles Oliveira (UCASO-USP) and the sanitary conditions of 45 samples of ready to eat food harvested in them. The first study provides an exploratory and qualitative approach through the application of checklists; the second laboratory analyzes the hygienic and sanitary aspects of the food sold by the previously discussed establishments. We concluded that 1) the UCASO-USP food trade establishments showed regular compliance rates of GHPH and appropriateness of IS, and the axis of hygiene and food handling proved to be better off compared to the infrastructure; 2) the street vendors analyzed showed better results in meeting the GHPH and IS standards and in the evaluation of sanitary conditions when compared to fixed establishments of food trade. It was found that it is possible to practice the street foods trade in sanitary conditions, without characterizing a public health threat, provided that the enterprising know and apply the necessary and critical procedures to obtaining the products marketed assurance, with social responsibility while make their commodity production simple mode.

A presente dissertação, apresentada em dois estudos, buscou verificar as condições de boas práticas de higiene e manipulação (BPHM) e de infraestrutura (IE) de oito restaurantes/lanchonetes e de sete pontos de comércio ambulante localizados na Cidade Universitária Armando de Salles Oliveira (CUASO-USP) e a qualidade higiênico-sanitária de 45 amostras de alimentos prontos para o consumo colhidas nos mesmos. O primeiro estudo traz uma abordagem exploratória e qualitativa através da aplicação de listas de verificação; o segundo analisa laboratorialmente aspectos higiênico-sanitários dos alimentos comercializados pelos estabelecimentos alvo do estudo anterior. Concluiu-se que 1) os estabelecimentos de comércio alimentício da CUASO-USP apresentaram índices regulares de cumprimento de BPHM e adequação de IE, sendo que o eixo de higiene e manipulação de alimentos mostrou-se em melhor situação quando comparado ao de infraestrutura; 2) os ambulantes analisados apresentaram melhores resultados no cumprimento das normas de BPHM e IE e na avaliação das condições higiênico-sanitárias quando comparados aos estabelecimentos fixos de comércio alimentício. Constatou-se que é possível a prática do comércio de alimentos de rua com qualidade higiênico-sanitária, sem caracterizar uma ameaça à saúde publica, desde que o empreendedor conheça e aplique os procedimentos necessários e críticos à obtenção da garantia dos produtos comercializados, assumindo responsabilidade social ao realizar o seu modo de produção mercantil simples, porém comprometido moralmente com a sociedade. / This investigate, presented in two studies, examined the good hygiene practices and handling (GHPH) and the infrastructure (IS) conditions from eight restaurants and seven street vendors located in University City Armando de Salles Oliveira (UCASO-USP) and the sanitary conditions of 45 samples of ready to eat food harvested in them. The first study provides an exploratory and qualitative approach through the application of checklists; the second laboratory analyzes the hygienic and sanitary aspects of the food sold by the previously discussed establishments. We concluded that 1) the UCASO-USP food trade establishments showed regular compliance rates of GHPH and appropriateness of IS, and the axis of hygiene and food handling proved to be better off compared to the infrastructure; 2) the street vendors analyzed showed better results in meeting the GHPH and IS standards and in the evaluation of sanitary conditions when compared to fixed establishments of food trade. It was found that it is possible to practice the street foods trade in sanitary conditions, without characterizing a public health threat, provided that the enterprising know and apply the necessary and critical procedures to obtaining the products marketed assurance, with social responsibility while make their commodity production simple mode.