The European Union (EU) market is important for South African citrus exporters; however, the increase in non-tariff measures (NTMs), such as SPS requirements by the EU, to some extent may have an impact on South African citrus export to the EU. For an instance, the EU adopted stricter regulations in 2013 on the number of Citrus Black Spot (CBS) interceptions, setting them at a maximum number of five, as opposed to thirty-six that were found in South African citrus exports in 2012. The adoption of such NTMs constitutes a greater challenge for South African exporters, who are required incur greater cost in complying with higher standards. South Africa has normally associated some of the NTMs imposed by the EU on citrus from South Africa, such as CBS regulations, with the internal interests of some citrus-producing European countries. The United Kingdom (UK), after Brexit and being outside the EU, may no longer be constrained by such EU interests. Accordingly, the main objective of this study is to evaluate the potential impact of NTMs imposed by the EU on South African citrus exports to the UK. To evaluate the impact of EU NTMs on South Africa citrus, a database of NTMs was developed. Citrus products classified at HS 6-digit level exported by South Africa to the EU were included in the database. The descriptive analysis has shown evidence that, overall, the number of NTMs applied on citrus exports from South African by the EU escalated from 25 in 1988 to 1 829 in 2018. This increase in the number of NTMs coincided with a decline in the tariffs. Inventory analysis results revealed that, because the UK is a member of the EU, and even though the UK does not have citrus production, South African citrus exports to the UK faced 3.9%–16% more SPS measures than they would have if the UK was not part of the EU. Furthermore, South Africa would have faced 10%–20% more TBT measures than they would have if UK was not part of the EU. It was also found that South Africa would have faced 33%–390% more of other types of NTMs than they would have if the UK was not part of the EU. The econometric analysis revealed that South African oranges and mandarins exports are mostly affected by SPS measures, rather than any other NTM category, and their impact is higher in the rest of the EU than in the UK. The difference of -0.001 and -0.009, which is obtained by subtracting the value of the NTM (SPS) coefficient for exports to the rest of the EU and that of the UK for oranges and mandarins, respectively, represents the margin by which South African exports to the UK unnecessarily suffer for SPS measures. The results also revealed that TBT measures only affected South African oranges and mandarins exports to the rest of the EU and not to the UK. The other NTMs had no significant impact on both exports to the rest of the EU and the UK. Furthermore, tariffs had no significant impact on all citrus categories exported to the rest of the EU and the UK, across all NTM categories. One of the important findings of the study is that the impact of SPS measures is the highest in the rest of the EU as compared with UK and that TBT measures had no negative effect on citrus exports to the UK. This implies that because there are no commercial citrus orchards in the UK, citrus exporters that were likely excluded to UK when it was still under EU will likely benefit if regulations related to pests, plant health (including CBS), plant protection and territory protection are eliminated or reduced. Therefore, this study recommend that South African trade policy makers should prioritise negotiations for the reduction or removal of some of these measures that do not apply to the UK due to the absence of commercial orchards in the UK. Furthermore, the study recommends that South African citrus producers should focus on exporting more amounts of citrus to the UK, and export less to the rest of the EU since exports to UK are not affected by TBT measures. / Dissertation (MSc (Agric) (Agricultural Economics))--University of Pretoria, 2021. / Department of Agriculture, Land Reform and Rural Development (DALRRD) / Agricultural Economics, Extension and Rural Development / MSc (Agric) (Agricultural Economics) / Unrestricted

yes / This paper explores the effects of non-tariff measures (NTM) on extensive and intensive margins of global exports of seafood in 1996-2011. The main result of this study is the differential and opposite effect of SPS and TBT measures. While SPS measures largely increase extensive margins of export and reduce intensive margins, TBTs mostly reduce exports at extensive margins and increase exports at intensive margins. Specific trade concerns (STC) have larger effect on exports than SPS and TBT notifications, both economically and statistically. Finally, there is substantial heterogeneity of response of exports to NTMs across HS six digit product lines, but the central tendency remains the same as for aggregated data.

A fundamental requirement in agricultural trade is that imported products are safe, and do not pose a risk to human, animal and plant health. To address this issue, all countries maintain measures to ensure that imported food is safe for consumers, and to prevent the spread of disease among animals and plants. These measures, by their nature, can affect competitiveness by increasing the costs of imports or prohibiting them altogether. To ensure that these measures are used for their intended purpose and not as protectionist measures, WTO member countries signed the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary measures. A growing number of studies attempt to quantify the effects of SPS regulations on international trade flows. However, precious little research is dedicated to determining the effects of specific phytosanitary regulations on trade flows and, more importantly, questions regarding SPS regulations and their impact as "trade barriers" or "trade catalysts" remain to be settled. This thesis contributes to existing literature in two ways. First, a comprehensive and user friendly database on specific phytosanitary regulations faced by U.S. exports of onions, peas, walnuts, apples, cherries, grapes, peaches/nectarines, oranges and strawberries to 176 countries is developed for the period 1999-2009. Second, this database is used for an empirical investigation to determine how existing SPS regulations affect U.S. fruit and vegetable exports. The results indicate that initially, phytosanitary treatments act as "barriers" to trade. However, as exporters' experience grows, the negative impact of treatments is reduced and eventually eliminated. / Master of Science

International trade encourages innovation, boosts development, reduces poverty, creates new markets, enhances competitiveness, improves product quality, and expands the consumer choice set. This dissertation is composed of three papers examining barriers to agricultural trade. The first two papers examine the impact of tariff and non-tariff barriers to agricultural trade while the third paper investigates China's domestic agricultural and international trade policies in order to promote U.S. market access in China. The first paper investigates how trade liberalization expands the range of products available for import and consumption. A multinomial logit framework of unordered export categories is developed: no trade margin, disappearing margin, intensive margin, and extensive margin. The findings of this paper suggest exporters gain from tariff reductions because they can establish new product relationships with the U.S. and enhance their U.S., and potentially global, supply chains. In addition, if consumers value variety in consumption, the extensive product margin results can be viewed as a positive welfare gain for U.S. agri-food consumers. The second paper focuses on non-tariff measures (NTM), which have significant implications for agricultural trade and food marketing. This paper focuses on maximum residue limits (MRLs) for pesticides and their trade restricting nature on U.S. fresh fruit and vegetable trade under the Trans-Atlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (T-TIP) and the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP). Specifically, this research develops a bilateral index to measure the stringency of destination market tolerances for pesticide residues relative to those faced in the United States. Using a Heckman two-step model, the results shed considerable light on existing regulatory heterogeneity, which has important implications for policy to focus on increasing compatibility of NTMs across trading nations. The third paper examines China's evolving agricultural and trade policies and discusses the potential impact on U.S. exports to China. China's agricultural imports, and policies affecting those agricultural products, have important implications for the U.S. as the leading export supplier to the Chinese market. China's price support programs, aimed at improving food security and Chinese farmers' incomes, increased domestic prices. This created a gap between domestic and international prices that led to excessive Chinese stockpiles. In response, China implemented respective target prices for cotton and soybeans, eliminated the price support for corn, and continues to introduce new policies. / Ph. D.

The objective of this study is to measure the level of the European Union's (EU) Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) price support system (PSS) applied to producers in the EU-15 and in Turkey. The producer subsidy estimate (PSE) method has been used to determine protection levels for selected cereal products from the beginning of the application of the PSE method in 1986 to date. In addition, this study attempts to examine the empirical findings of the PSE in the light of CAP reforms and EU enlargements during the period 1986- 2003. The expected contribution of this study is to determine which support instruments, such as countervailing levies or direct payments (based on limited or unlimited area) against export subsidies, voluntary or compulsory set-aside measures and price interventions, are more appropriate for the CAP in reducing destabilizing effects on trade with selected products between the EU and Turkey with respect to distribution effects (how income is distributed between different groups involved in the production operation process). Does the current PSS of the CAP have positive effects on agricultural producers in Turkey as a non-member country? The major finding of this dissertation is the evaluation of benefits and costs of common agricultural policies of the EU on fair trade. The assessment of the PSE of the EU's CAP will be used to determine the impact of current support measures of the CAP reforms on fair trade and consumer welfare, and how the CAP measures can be reformed for the improvement of producer gain in accordance with fair trade. (author's abstract)

Cette thèse analyse les mesures non-tarifaires et les barrières au commerce et leurs liens avec les échanges internationaux. Dans le chapitre 1, j’étudie les objectifs derrière l’implémentation des mesures non-tarifaires sur différents produits dans plusieurs pays en développement. Au-delà des objectifs légitimes, plusieurs mesures répondent à des objectifs économiques et politiques. Le chapitre 2 propose une analyse théorique et empirique du rôle des normes de qualité sur les entreprises hétérogènes et la qualité moyenne des produits exportés. Conjointement avec Anne-Célia Disdier et Carl Gaigné, nous montrons que, dans un contexte d’asymétrie d’information, l’adoption des normes engendre la sortie des entreprises de très basse qualité (quelle que soit leur productivité) et des entreprises de haute qualité et à basse productivité. Alors que la qualité moyenne des produits n’est pas affectée de manière significative, l’impact varie largement à travers les secteurs. Le chapitre 3, une collaboration avec Evgenii Monastyrenko, analyse comment les exportateurs russes et leurs clients internationaux se partagent les risques et les coûts pendant le processus d’expédition, compte tenu de leur exposition à de nombreux obstacles. Ainsi, les grands importateurs en termes de taille et nombre de partenaires assument davantage de risques et de coûts. La probabilité que les importateurs subissent davantage de responsabilités est également plus élevée dans les transactions de biens intermédiaires. Enfin, les importateurs localisés dans un pays avec un environnement propice aux affaires sont moins susceptibles d’assumer des risques et des coûts. / This thesis tackles non-tariff measures and other trade-related barriers and their links to inter-national trade. In Chapter 1, I study the motivations behind the implementation of non-tariff measures on specific products in several developing countries. Beyond legitimate reasons, several measures appear to respond to economic and political motivations. Chapter 2 provides a theoretical and empirical analysis of the role of standard-like non-tariff measures on heterogeneous firms and the average quality of exported products. In this joint work with Anne-Célia Disdier and Carl Gaigné, we show that, under information asymmetry, the enforcement of standards induces the exit of very low-quality firms (regardless of their productivity), but also of high-quality low-productivity firms. While the overall average quality of exported products is not significantly affected, the impact varies significantly across sectors. Chapter 3, co-authored with Evgenii Monastyrenko, analyzes how Russian sellers and their international customers divide risks and costs throughout the shipping process, given their exposure to numerous barriers. Thus, big buyers in terms of size and number of connections appear to bear more risks and costs in international trade transactions. The probability that buyers take on more responsibilities is also higher for transactions of intermediate goods. Finally, when buyers are located in countries with a good business environment, they are less likely to take on responsibilities.

The effect of Non-Tariff Measures (NTMs) on agri-food trade has drawn broad research interest and gained a substantial attention by scientific community as well as by policy makers. Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) standards among others represent a major challenge for trade policy and food safety. The identification and measurement of the economic implications of NTMs require the use of an adequate both methodological and empirical framework to derive sound estimates. By targeting economic sectors and issues not previously investigated, this Thesis contributes to previous literature on determining the factors that affect the implementation of SPS and their effects on trade flows. Four specific objectives have been pursued in four papers that constitute the main body of the present Thesis. The main purpose of the first paper is to investigate the scope of the reputation effect over time. To do so, we use The European Union (EU)'s Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF) data on sanitary and phytosanitary notifications from 1998 to 2013. Two count data models have been implemented to estimate the distribution of current notifications. In line with previous literature, our findings indicate that reputation does affect current EU notifications. Furthermore, we identify some relevant exporter countries for which reputation is long-lasting. The second paper aims at analyzing the behavior of the EU in controlling Aflatoxin (AF) contamination with respect to tree nuts and groundnuts for the period (1998-2015). To conduct this analysis, we have used a count data model, based on political economy considerations, past alerts and path dependence effects. Policy changes, including harmonization of AF standards and their further relaxing are estimated to have significant impact on the frequency of border controls. In the third paper, we seek to assess the influencing factors on food standard enforcement in the EU with a special attention to agri-food imports from Mediterranean countries. We explore if there is any special treatment toward Mediterranean countries in controlling agri-food imports, testing if past border notifications affect current decisions on the implementation of food standards by the EU. RASFF notifications data over the period 2000-2012, and count data models are used for this purpose. Our empirical results support the hypothesis that previous food notifications may slightly affect current notifications; nevertheless, this effect seems to be less relevant for products of interest for Mediterranean Partner Countries. Hence, we cannot identify a pro or anti Mediterranean bias in the way that food safety controls are implemented at the EU borders. The last paper focuses on the assessment of the competitiveness of the Tunisian agri-food sector before signing the Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Agreement (DCFTA) with the EU. Specifically, competitive advantage measurement, based on the Tunisian National Institute of Statistics (INS) data over 2007-2012 period, has been used for this purpose. The analysis of the Tunisian agri-food sector reveals an important potential for exporting some agri-food staples. Recently, Tunisia is facing new challenges in exporting strategic products underlying the importance of adopting new business and marketing strategies or prospecting new markets. However, some agri-food subsectors, mainly animal products, milk and dairy products and cereals, remain unprepared to overcome the costs of the DCFTA due to their low competitiveness. Hence, Tunisian authorities could propose a progressive trade liberalization strategy with the EU. / El efecto de las medidas no arancelarias sobre el comercio agroalimentario ha generado un amplio interés en la investigación y ha recibido una atención considerable por parte de la comunidad científica y de los políticos de comercio. Las Medidas Sanitarias y Fitosanitarias (MSP), entre otras, representan un reto importante para la política comercial y la inocuidad de los alimentos. La identificación y medición de las implicaciones económicas de las MNT requieren el uso de un marco metodológico o empírico adecuado para derivar estimaciones sólidas. Al enfocarse en sectores económicos y temas no investigados previamente, esta tesis contribuye a la literatura previa sobre la determinación de los factores que afectan la implementación del MSP. La tesis estudia cuatro cuestiones principales que se reflejan en cuatro artículos científicos independientes, que constituyen el elemento central de la misma. El principal objetivo del primer artículo es el de investigar el efecto reputación a lo largo del tiempo. Para ello, utilizamos los datos RASFF para el periodo 1998-2013. Se han implementado dos modelos de datos de recuento para estimar la distribución de las notificaciones actuales. De acuerdo con la literatura anterior, nuestras conclusiones indican que la reputación afecta a las notificaciones actuales de la UE. Además, identificamos algunos países exportadores relevantes cuya reputación es duradera. El segundo artículo analiza el comportamiento de la UE en el control de la contaminación por Aflatoxina (AF) con respecto a los frutos secos entre el periodo 1998 y 2015. Para llevar a cabo este análisis, hemos utilizado un modelo de datos de recuento, basado en consideraciones de economía política, alertas pasadas y efectos de dependencia de trayectoria. Se estima que los cambios en las políticas, incluida la armonización de las normas AF y su posterior relajación, tienen un impacto significativo en la frecuencia de los controles en las fronteras. En el tercer artículo, tratamos de evaluar los factores que influyen en la aplicación de normas alimentarias en la UE prestando especial atención a las importaciones agroalimentarias procedentes de países mediterráneos. Así, estudiamos si hay algún tratamiento especial hacia los países mediterráneos en el control de las importaciones agroalimentarias, contrastando si las notificaciones pasadas afectan las decisiones actuales sobre la aplicación de las normas alimentarias por parte de la UE. Los datos de las notificaciones RASFF durante el período 2000-2012 y los modelos de datos de recuento se utilizan para este fin. Nuestros resultados empíricos apoyan la hipótesis de que las notificaciones anteriores pueden afectar ligeramente a las notificaciones actuales. Sin embargo, este efecto parece ser menos relevante para los productos procedentes de los países mediterráneos. Por lo tanto, no podemos identificar un comportamiento pro o anti mediterráneo en la forma en que se implementan controles de seguridad alimentaria en las fronteras de la UE.El último documento se centra en la evaluación de la competitividad del sector agroalimentario tunecino antes de firmar el Acuerdo de Libre Comercio Profundo y Amplio con la UE. Concretamente, se han utilizado indicadores de las ventajas competitivas, basándose en los datos del INS para el período 2007-2012. El análisis del sector agroalimentario tunecino revela un importante potencial de exportación de algunos productos básicos agroalimentarios. Recientemente, Túnez se enfrenta a nuevos retos en la exportación de productos estratégicos subrayando la importancia de adoptar nuevas estrategias comerciales y de comercialización o prospección de nuevos mercados. Sin embargo, algunos subsectores agroalimentarios, principalmente productos de origen animal, leche y productos lácteos y cereales, siguen sin estar preparados para soportar los costos del acuerdo de libre comercio profundo y completo debido / L'efecte de les mesures no aranzelàries (MNT) sobre el comerç agroalimentari ha generat un ampli interés en la investigació i ha rebut una atenció considerable per part de la comunitat científica i dels polítics de comerç. Les Mesures Sanitàries i Fitosanitàries (MSP) , entre altres, representen un repte important per a la política comercial i la innocuïtat dels aliments. La identificació i mesurament de les implicacions econòmiques de les MNT requerixen l'ús d'un marc metodològic o empíric adequat per a derivar estimacions sòlides. A l'enfocar-se en sectors econòmics i temes no investigats prèviament, esta tesi contribuïx a la literatura prèvia sobre la determinació dels factors que afecten la implementació del MSF. La tesi estudia quatre qüestions principals que es reflectixen en quatre articles científics independents, que constituïxen l'element central de la mateixa. El principal objectiu del primer article és el d'investigar l'efecte reputació al llarg del temps. Per a això, utilitzem les dades RASFF per al període 1998-2013. S'han implementat dos models de dades de recompte per a estimar la distribució de les notificacions actuals. D'acord amb la literatura anterior, les nostres conclusions indiquen que la reputació afecta les notificacions actuals de la UE. A més, identifiquem alguns països exportadors rellevants la reputació de les quals és duradora. El segon article analitza el comportament de la UE en el control de la contaminació per Aflatoxina (AF) respecte a les fruites seques entre el període 1998 i 2015. Per a dur a terme esta anàlisi, hem utilitzat un model de dades de recompte, basat en consideracions d'economia política, alertes passades i efectes de dependència de trajectòria. S'estima que els canvis en les polítiques, inclosa l'harmonització de les normes AF i la seua posterior relaxació, tenen un impacte significatiu en la freqüència dels controls en les fronteres. En el tercer article, tractem d'avaluar els factors que influïxen en l'aplicació de normes alimentàries en la UE, prestant especial atenció a les importacions agroalimentàries procedents de països mediterranis. Així, estudiem si hi ha algun tractament especial cap als països mediterranis en el control de les importacions agroalimentàries, contrastant si les notificacions passades afecten les decisions actuals sobre l'aplicació de les normes alimentàries per part de la UE. Les dades de les notificacions RASFF durant el període 2000-2012 i els models de dades de recompte s'utilitzen per a este fi. Els nostres resultats empírics recolzen la hipòtesi que les notificacions anteriors poden afectar lleugerament les notificacions actuals. No obstant això, este efecte pareix menys rellevant per als productes procedents dels països mediterranis. Per tant, no podem identificar un comportament pro o anti mediterrani en la forma en què s'implementen controls de seguretat alimentària en les fronteres de la UE. L'últim document se centra en l'avaluació de la competitivitat del sector agroalimentari tunisenc abans de firmar l'Acord de Lliure Comerç Profund i Ampli amb la UE. Concretament, s'ha utilitzat indicadors dels avantatges competitius, basant-se en les dades de l'INS per al període 2007-2012. L'anàlisi del sector agroalimentari tunisenc revela un important potencial d'exportació d'alguns productes bàsics agroalimentaris. Recentment, Tunis s'enfronta a nous reptes en l'exportació de productes estratègics subratllant la importància d'adoptar noves estratègies comercials i de comercialització o prospecció de nous mercats. No obstant això, alguns subsectors agroalimentaris, principalment productes d'origen animal, llet i productes lactis i cereals, seguixen sense estar preparats per a suportar els costos de l'ALCD a causa de la seua baixa competitivitat. Per tant, les autoritats tunisenques podrien proposar una estratègia progres / Taghouti, I. (2017). A political economy approach to measuring EU food standard enforcement and their implications on agri-food trade [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/89095 / TESIS

No description available.

El café es uno de los productos agrícolas que genera mayores divisas en el Perú y también es uno de los productos más comercializado en el mundo, gracias a sus diversos beneficios. En la actualidad, 223 mil familias, que están relacionadas a la producción y exportación del café. El Perú es el octavo exportador a nivel mundial de café y el 70% de los cultivos peruanos son valorados por su calidad y rentabilidad. Sin embargo, la poca interacción entre el sector privado y público, la coyuntura internacional, la precariedad de las técnicas inmersa y otros factores han ocasionado que gran cantidad de hectáreas de cultivo se hayan redireccionado al cultivo de otros productos agrícolas. La presente investigación tiene como objetivo analizar la influencia de los factores económicos y comerciales en la exportación de café en granos verde, partida arancelaria 0901.1190, hacia Japón del 2016 al 2019. En ese sentido, se evaluará el sector cafetalero peruano y la realidad problemática para lograr los objetivos de la investigación. Para lo cual, se utilizó fuentes primarias de diversos autores y herramientas de investigación como: Trademap, Veritrade, Santander Trade, Banco Mundial, entre otros. De igual manera, se recabó información clave mediante entrevistas a profundidad a empresas y cooperativas exportadoras de café verde en granos durante el 2016 al 2019 y a especialistas como: MINCETUR, PROMPERÚ, MINAGRI y Cámara Peruana de Café y Cacao. Se empleó el software “Atlas Ti” para poder realizar el análisis de cada entrevista y determinar el impacto de los factores en estudio sobre las exportaciones de café. / Coffee is one of the agricultural products that generates the most foreign exchange in Peru and is also one of the most traded products in the world, thanks to its diverse benefits. Currently, 223 thousand families are related to the production and export of coffee. Peru is the eighth largest exporter of coffee in the world and 70% of Peruvian crops are valued for their quality and profitability. However, the lack of interaction between the private and public sectors, the international situation, the precariousness of the techniques used, and other factors have caused a large number of hectares of crops to be redirected to the cultivation of other agricultural products. The objective of this research is to analyze the influence of economic and commercial factors on the export of green coffee beans, tariff item 0901.1190, to Japan from 2016 to 2019. In this sense, the Peruvian coffee sector and the problematic reality will be evaluated to achieve the research objectives. For this purpose, primary sources from different authors and research tools such as Trademap, Veritrade, Santander Trade, World Bank, among others, were used. Similarly, key information was collected through in-depth interviews with companies and cooperatives exporting green coffee beans from 2016 to 2019 and specialists such as MINCETUR, PROMPERÚ, MINAGRI and the Peruvian Chamber of Coffee and Cocoa. The "Atlas Ti" software was used to analyze each interview and determine the impact of the factors under study on coffee exports. / Tesis

Yes / The present study examines the multidimensional effect of the maritime cabotage that regulates the maritime transport between United States of North America and Puerto Rico’s markets. The objective of the study was to analyze the effects that this non-tariff measure has on the agro-industrial sector in Puerto Rico. The research methodology consisted of semi-structured interviews and secondary data analysis from the agricultural category of greater import. The results conclude that it is the interaction of non-tariff measures inherent to the business relationship between the two countries that has an impact on the efficiency and competitiveness of the agro-industrial sector in Puerto Rico. / Universidad ICESI