The thesis examines foreign currency (FX) loans in Hungary and tries to compare them to leverage investment strategy known as carry trade. FX loans in Hungary after 2003 enjoyed great development, but only until the outbreak of the global financial crisis in 2008, which fully revealed the negatives associated with this type of financing, which resulted in a threat to the stability of the whole financial sector in the country. This thesis describes the situation in Hungary and examines the consequences connected with mass development of FX loans. There is an analysis of the currency crisis in 2008 as a part of the thesis. At the same time, the thesis aims to analyze the causes that were behind the unusually rapid growth of FX loans. The factors are divided on the demand and supply motivated factors.

The present diploma thesis focuses on the judicial decisions resolved in administrative judiciary. The first part of the thesis describes the role of general practice of the court in the Czech republic and the types of its legal liability. Then, the thesis concentrates on the administrative judiciary and its legal liability. The second and the third chapter deal with individual judicial decisions that were selected from the areas of foreign currency and accrued assets and accrued liabilities.

SFAS No. 52, Foreign Currency Translation, was issued in December, 1981, replacing SFAS No. 8, Accounting For the Translation of Foreign Currency Transactions and Foreign Currency Financial Statements. SFAS No. 52 has shifted the impact of translation gains and losses from the income statement to the balance sheet. It was expected that SFAS No. 52 would eliminate the incentive for multinationals to engage in various hedging activities to reduce the effect of the translation process in reported earnings. It was also expected that multinationals would change their foreign exchange risk management practices. The major purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of SFAS No. 52 on foreign exchange risk management practices of U.S. based multinationals.

Globalization is a fact in a lot of businesses today, something that is also relevant in the real estate industry. The currency differs depending on where investments are made and as a result of this real estate investors also face currency risks in addition to all other real estate related risks they already need to manage. The management of currency risk can have different forms, and the purpose of this thesis is to find out how, if and why real estate investors, especially Swedish, hedge this risk. To create an understanding of the issue, a summary of some theories on the currency market and real estate market can be found in the thesis. Only a small amount of research exists on the subject in Sweden and the theories are mainly from foreign studies and the currency risk management from other business sectors. These theories, combined with the research questions, have formed the questions for the interviews this study is made of. Debt in the local currency of where the investment is made can be seen as a natural hedge for the currency risk. Reduced loan-to-value (LTV) ratios from banks for real estate investments have led to a situation where loans, which can cannot be used to the same extent. That makes it more interesting to find out which other instruments are being used to avoid the currency risk and if the real estate investors wants to avoid it at all. The purpose of this thesis is to find the answers to these questions. The interviewed consultancy firms and banks as well as the investors themselves state that the currency risk is a risk that should not occur in Swedish real estate investments on markets with a different currency. The reason for this is that the real estate assets should be the primary focus of the business. To hedge this risk, bank loans and currency futures are the most frequently used instruments by Swedish real estate investors. / Globalization is a fact in a lot of businesses today, something that is also relevant in the real estate industry. The currency differs depending on where investments are made and as a result of this real estate investors also face currency risks in addition to all other real estate related risks they already need to manage. The management of currency risk can have different forms, and the purpose of this thesis is to find out how, if and why real estate investors, especially Swedish, hedge this risk. To create an understanding of the issue, a summary of some theories on the currency market and real estate market can be found in the thesis. Only a small amount of research exists on the subject in Sweden and the theories are mainly from foreign studies and the currency risk management from other business sectors. These theories, combined with the research questions, have formed the questions for the interviews this study is made of. Debt in the local currency of where the investment is made can be seen as a natural hedge for the currency risk. Reduced loan-to-value (LTV) ratios from banks for real estate investments have led to a situation where loans, which can cannot be used to the same extent. That makes it more interesting to find out which other instruments are being used to avoid the currency risk and if the real estate investors wants to avoid it at all. The purpose of this thesis is to find the answers to these questions. The interviewed consultancy firms and banks as well as the investors themselves state that the currency risk is a risk that should not occur in Swedish real estate investments on markets with a different currency. The reason for this is that the real estate assets should be the primary focus of the business. To hedge this risk, bank loans and currency futures are the most frequently used instruments by Swedish real estate investors.

This thesis pertains to international finance and models of exchange rate determination as well as efficiency of the market for foreign currency. The first chapter is an introduction where we discuss the advent of flexible exchange rate regimes and the development of monetary models of exchange rate determination as well as present a framework for this thesis. In the second chapter we consider the historical failure of monetary models of the exchange rate and revisit the standard real interest differential (RID) model (Frankel, 1979a). The Great British Pound (GBP) and Canadian Dollar (CAD) vis-à-vis the United States dollar (USD) are examined during the period 1980:Q1 -2015:Q1, a time characterized by flexible exchange rate regimes and heightened capital mobility across borders. Unit root properties of the sample variables are examined and the Johansen (1995) methodology is applied to test for cointegration. The RID model yields a single cointegrating relation however tests of long-run exclusion (LE) and weak exogeneity (WE) show that the RID model is not a coherent model of the GBP and CAD against the USD. The study is furthered by examination of the hybrid monetary model (Hunter and Ali, 2014). The hybrid model is tested for comparison with Japan, as the post 2007-2009 financial crisis period is branded by zero-lower bound interest rates, a phenomenon first experienced by Japan for any prolonged period of time. The hybrid model in addition yields a single relation however tests of LE and WE show that the long-run projection is reversed and that a coherent relationship exists between the GBP and CAD vis-à-vis the USD and variables related to monetary fundamentals as well as long-run economic activity. In the third chapter we examine efficiency of the market for foreign currency. The lead-lag pricing relationship between spot and futures rates is discussed and a panel employing data for the GBP, Australia Dollar (AUD), CAD, Brazilian Real (BRL) and South African Rand (ZAR) vis-à-vis the USD is constructed at several intervals prior to expiry. The Johansen (1995) methodology is applied and shows that spot and futures rates cointegrate and that the cointegrating vector is the basis. Unit root properties for the basis are also examined and found to be integrated of order one or I(1). We therefore show that the market for foreign currency functions efficiently and that profitable arbitrage opportunities exist that restore prices to parity levels. This study is of particular significance in view of the markets' growing share and need for greater transparency to lay down appropriate regulation that limits systematic risk. In the fourth chapter we re-examine monetary models of the exchange rate and consider the USD vis-a vis the Japanese Yen (JPY) in view of the Japanese economy's slow growth in the post 2007-2009 financial crisis period. We test the standard RID monetary model as a framework for modelling the USD/JPY exchange rate however tests of WE show that the nominal exchange rate is weakly exogenous so drives the system instead of adapting to it. The hybrid monetary model developed by Hunter and Ali (2014) is adjusted in consideration of the current period of sluggish economic growth in Japan by incorporating differentials related to traded and non-traded goods productivity (Rogoff, 1992). The adjusted hybrid model produces a single cointegrating relation and joint tests of LE and WE show that the nominal exchange rate cannot be long-run excluded and is not weakly exogenous so that the adjusted hybrid model is a coherent long-run model of the USD/JPY nominal exchange rate. In the fifth chapter we conclude and summarize the findings of the three studies presented in this thesis as well as provide practical recommendations for further study such as construction of dynamic error correction models and assessing out-of-sample forecasting performance for the extended monetary models examined in chapters two and four. Further development of the study for effectively functioning foreign exchange markets as presented in chapter three is in addition discussed in the final chapter. We contribute to the extant literature by showing in chapter two that the conventional RID monetary model of the exchange rate for the GBP and CAD vis-à-vis the USD can be rejected. A single econometric specification can be adapted to explain the long-run exchange rate for the GBP/USD exchange rate while an extended model is effective in providing an explanation of the long-run CAD/USD exchange rate. In chapter three we demonstrate that the spot and futures markets for five bilateral exchange rates function effectively across developed and developing countries. Lastly, we show in Chapter four that the model of the USD/JPY exchange rate due to Hunter and Ali (2014) appears a specific case and that the USD/JPY is not readily distinguished from a random walk in the context of a monetary model that considers traded and non-traded goods productivity differentials.

由於台灣資源並不豐富，市場有限，對外進出口（含製造）自然成為維繫台灣經濟的命脈。因此國內總體經濟環境容易受到國際經濟變數的影響，而匯率波動就是對國際貿易一個直接衝擊的因素。企業的匯率風險來源主要有二，一為交易性風險（Transaction Exposure），一為換算性風險（Translation Exposure）。本研究將針對台灣境內多國籍公司的匯率風險進行研究，探討會計衡量與公司價值的關聯性，亦即外幣匯兌損益與外幣換算調整數與公司價值之關係。 本研究採「關聯性研究法」針對民國79年至民國86年的多國籍公司進行研究，並分由「年度分析」與「Pooled Analysis」二方面進行實證分析。此外，本研究又考量了股票報酬與外幣匯兌損益及外幣換算調整數間可能具非線性關係，故又採Regressions on Ranks的方式探討此非線性關係是否成立。 本研究大部分年度分析並不支持本研究之假說。本研究之部分模式的實證結果支持市場在評價公司時，會將損益表的外幣匯兌損益及股東權益項下的外幣換算調整數納入考量。且亦發現市場對於二者所持態度是無差異的，亦即市場對於二者的考量權重並不具顯著差異。 / This study examines whether the stock market considers foreign exchange transaction when pricing securities about multinational firms. It primary examines the relations between the foreign exchange gains and losses in the income statement, the foreign translation adjustments in the stock equity, and stock price. Most of the results from the annual analysis do not support the hypotheses of this study. But some of the results from the pooled analysis support the hypotheses of this study. It suggests that the stock market will consider both the foreign exchange gains and losses in the income statement and the foreign translation adjustments in the stock equity when pricing securities. And it also suggest that the weights the stock market gave them show no significant difference.

<p>Even though today´s world unwinds on the increasing way of the globalisation, investors are aware of the possibilities the international markets offer and distance is not an issue any more, they are still governed by the “home bias factor“. This phenomenon implies that investors tend to prefer investing in domestic securities rather than entering the global market. Swedish investors are not the exception and the issue of the attraction of foreign fixed income securities is highlighted even more when we have found out there is lack of academic research about the topic from the perspective of Swedish investors. To narrow down the research subject and provide a reader with an interesting approach, we decided to examine the attraction of foreign government bonds from the perspective of Swedish investors.</p><p>At the beginning of the paper we raised three research questions and defined the objective of the paper in questioning the existence of reasons to invest in foreign government bonds. Another research question was defined as identifying our local investor, who is entering the global market and last, but not least, what investing strategy do we recommend him to follow.</p><p>Along the paper we proposed to apply a decent level of informative as well as a scientific approach to provide a reader with a valuable study concerning pre-defined topic. To reach more concrete outcomes of the study we have accepted couple of assumtions which we have identified ourselves with and we have stressed them especially during the theoretical part of the paper.</p><p>After conducting the comprehensive analysis of the Swedish market for government bonds we have identified a huge gap between the demand and supply for such bonds and based on the discussion concerning the opportunities and risks connected with such investments we have defined our investor. Under given assumptions, as the most probable case of occurance we consider a rational investor, who is offsetting the balance of interest rate sensitive assets and liabilities simultaneously looking for the best possible yield, the lowest possible risk and sound level of diversification.</p><p>During the empirical analysis, namely examination of the national yield curves we set first, however very limited investment strategy. After the incorporation of the portfolio theory, currency rate risk and the existence of instruments covering the foreign currency exposure we have come into a conclusion that our investor does not have to necessarily prefer a security from the depicted efficient frontier, but he can employ other securities as well. As a consequence, when using 100% hedging he can use whichever security on the global market.</p><p>At the conclusion, stated findings imply another investigation, since our research was based on very strong assumptions presented during the study. Thus it by far does not provide the reader with a comprehensive investment analysis, which some readers might be interested in. However, even from the beginning we claimed that we do not have such an ambitious goal.</p>

Even though today´s world unwinds on the increasing way of the globalisation, investors are aware of the possibilities the international markets offer and distance is not an issue any more, they are still governed by the “home bias factor“. This phenomenon implies that investors tend to prefer investing in domestic securities rather than entering the global market. Swedish investors are not the exception and the issue of the attraction of foreign fixed income securities is highlighted even more when we have found out there is lack of academic research about the topic from the perspective of Swedish investors. To narrow down the research subject and provide a reader with an interesting approach, we decided to examine the attraction of foreign government bonds from the perspective of Swedish investors. At the beginning of the paper we raised three research questions and defined the objective of the paper in questioning the existence of reasons to invest in foreign government bonds. Another research question was defined as identifying our local investor, who is entering the global market and last, but not least, what investing strategy do we recommend him to follow. Along the paper we proposed to apply a decent level of informative as well as a scientific approach to provide a reader with a valuable study concerning pre-defined topic. To reach more concrete outcomes of the study we have accepted couple of assumtions which we have identified ourselves with and we have stressed them especially during the theoretical part of the paper. After conducting the comprehensive analysis of the Swedish market for government bonds we have identified a huge gap between the demand and supply for such bonds and based on the discussion concerning the opportunities and risks connected with such investments we have defined our investor. Under given assumptions, as the most probable case of occurance we consider a rational investor, who is offsetting the balance of interest rate sensitive assets and liabilities simultaneously looking for the best possible yield, the lowest possible risk and sound level of diversification. During the empirical analysis, namely examination of the national yield curves we set first, however very limited investment strategy. After the incorporation of the portfolio theory, currency rate risk and the existence of instruments covering the foreign currency exposure we have come into a conclusion that our investor does not have to necessarily prefer a security from the depicted efficient frontier, but he can employ other securities as well. As a consequence, when using 100% hedging he can use whichever security on the global market. At the conclusion, stated findings imply another investigation, since our research was based on very strong assumptions presented during the study. Thus it by far does not provide the reader with a comprehensive investment analysis, which some readers might be interested in. However, even from the beginning we claimed that we do not have such an ambitious goal.

The globalization leads to integration of the economies worldwide. As the firms&#039 / businesses also get integrated with each other, the financing choices of the firms diversify. Among these choices, the popularity and the share of foreign currency borrowing in total borrowing by non-financial firms increase in Turkey similar to the global developments. The main purpose of this thesis is to price the risks of default and financial distress due to foreign currency denominated loans of non-financial firms in Turkey. The valuation model of foreign currency corporate loans is established by two state variable option pricing model based on the study of Cox, Ingersoll and Ross. In our model, the main risk factors are identified as the exchange rate and the interest rate, which are the state variables of the main partial differential equation whose solution gives the value of the asset. The numerical results are tested for different parameters and for different economic environments. The findings show that interest rate fluctuations are more important both for the default and financial distress option values than the fluctuations in exchange rate. However, the effect of upside movements of exchange rate on the financial distress and default values is sharper than the downside movement effect of interest rate. Furthermore, high loan-to-value (LTV) foreign currency loans result in significantly high financial distress values that cannot be disregarded and can lead to default of the firm. To the best of our knowledge, this thesis is the first study that develops a structural model to evaluate foreign currency denominated corporate loans in an option-pricing framework.

The main aim of this diploma thesis was to evaluate accounts of foreign exchange for students. The evaluation was made for two potencial students with different preferences. Another aim is carried out survey and later compare all results.