Sex and ancestry are most commonly estimated by anthropologists using the skull. Typically, measurements and observations are taken on the skull itself, but for the purpose of convenience, computed tomography (CT) scans are increasingly used in place of skulls in research and forensic casework. Researchers work under the assumption that the dry skull-to-CT scan ratio is one-to-one; however, research on the accuracy of CT scans is sparse. In this study, eight skulls from the Boston University Donated Skeletal Collection were scored for sex and ancestral morphological traits following Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994) and Hefner and Ousley (2014), and measured using standard cranial measurements according to Langley et al. (2016). CT scans were then taken of the eight skulls and the same morphological observations and measurements were taken using the RadiAnt 5.5.1 CT viewer. Additionally, the measurements of each skull and scan were entered into FORDISC 3.1, a software program that provides discriminant functions for the processes of sex and ancestry estimation. The measurements for each dry skull-CT scan pairing were then analyzed for variance and mean differences. The results of the morphological and metric analyses indicate that the majority of the data gathered from dry skulls did not vary significantly from the measurements taken on the CT scans. The morphological sex estimation resulted in the same estimation for each skull-to-CT scan pairing; however, the morphological ancestry estimation results indicated that skeletal information lost in CT scans can make full visualization and therefore assessment of the facial region difficult. The FORDISC 3.1 results generally support the indication that there is not a significant difference between skull and CT scan measurements, with consistent sex estimation results for each dry skull-to-CT scan pairing and consistent ancestry estimation results for the majority of the pairings. However, the sex and ancestry estimations were not always accurate considering the true ancestral backgrounds of the individuals. Based on these outcomes, it is evident that CT scans can be used to obtain reliable morphological assessments and measurements of a skull, which can then be used to estimate sex using FORDISC 3.1. However, to ensure accuracy of the sex and ancestry estimations, other methods should be used in conjunction with FORDISC 3.1.

This study tests whether musculoskeletal markers are attributable to occupational categories. It is hypothesized that individuals over the age of 30 years with a lifetime occupation as a laborer will demonstrate a significantly different pattern of activity markers from individuals in the white collar classifications. A sample of n=69 from the Maxwell Museum's Documented Skeletal Collection are investigated. Upper and lower extremities were scored for MSM type (robusticity, stress lesions, and ossification exostoses) and severity (grades 0 - 3) following Hawkey and Merbs (1995) visual reference system. To evaluate methodological approaches to MSM scoring, ossification exostoses and stress lesions were also scored using the Mariotti et al. (2004) proposed methods. Upper limb muscle insertion sites on the humerus, radius, and ulna and lower limb insertion sites on the femur, fibula, patella, calcaneus, and tibia were studied. The Kruskal Wallis test was used to predict occupational class according to an individual's aggregate MSM z-score. The Mann-Whitney test was used for comparison of aggregate MSM z-scores between the two occupational categories and for comparison of aggregate MSM z-scores between males and females. The Spearman correlation was used for non-parametric correlation analysis of aggregate MSM z-scores and the occupational categories of white collar and labor. The data were analyzed using the statistical software program SPSS (version 17.0). Results of this study show that musculoskeletal markers cannot statistically predict, nor can they be used to distinguish between, occupational categories of white collar and labor. Comparison of MSM shows no significant difference in the overall patterns of enthesopathies between individuals who report an occupation of white collar or those who report an occupation of laborer as defined by the U.S. Office of Personnel. Comparison of MSM in this population shows no significant difference between males and females, regardless of occupational category, a finding which runs counter to many earlier studies. Using dichotomous data it is revealed that laborers develop MSM symmetrically, evidence of whole-body activity. Further, white collar MSM can be associated with sitting and elevating the arm. Laborer's MSM are associated with lifting, twisting, pushing, squatting, walking, running and standing. Recommendations on methodology are provided.

The use of the Daubert Standard in court proceedings has highlighted the need to substantiate scientific findings or claims beyond simply accepting the word of a respected expert. The concept of postmenopausal masculinization of the skull in female crania falls into this category. Dr. Walker references this concept in several articles but there is no research to support this hypothesis. This project examines the theory of postmenopausal masculinization of female crania from several perspectives, using the visual sex estimation method set forth in Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains edited by Jane E. Buikstra and Douglas H Ubelaker, photographic seriation of these sex estimation traits, and metric measurements in conjunction with Fordisc 3.1. A sample of 395 crania from the Hamann-Todd Collection at the Cleveland Museum of Natural History was analyzed using all three of these methods to determine if there was a pattern of masculinization in the postmenopausal female sample. The average age for the onset of menopause in the United States is 50, thus there should be an increase in "masculinization" observable through more rugged sex estimation traits, a higher number of females 50 or over being found below the midpoint in photographic seriations of sex estimation traits, and an increase in Fordisc 3.1 sex identification misclassifications in females in this age category. The results of the analyses revealed that there were statistically significant differences between ancestry groups, the sexes, and in some cases, age-groups. The results of this research indicate that though there are some differences between comparison groups, there does not appear to be a cohesive pattern of masculinization in female crania at or after the average age of onset of menopause. Human variation is endless, and even in areas of the skeleton for which it has been established that there is a significant degree of sexual dimorphism, there will be individuals who do not fit neatly into a binary conception of sexual divergence. Though these individuals may be misidentified as the opposite sex using one or all of the methods utilized in this project, this falls short of being classified as a part of the menopausal process in females.

In forensic anthropology, laboratory-based (LBM) and field-based (FM) models can be used to develop new methods and to research the stability and rate at which bio-molecules degrade. In this study, both these methods were used to investigate the effects that temperature, time after death (TAD) and other environmental factors had on the concentration of and change in molecular structure (increase in free pyrrole content, ninhydrin reactive nitrogen (NRN) and iron). of collagen, haemoglobin (Hb) and DNA in porcine teeth For the LBM, porcine teeth were heated at 900C for 0-4 hours, 1 hour intervals, (total number of teeth n=35). A porcine FM was established at the Miertjie Le Roux Experimental Farm of the University of Pretoria. From the decomposing pigs, teeth were collected at TAD intervals of 20 days (n=35). The morphology of the teeth were evaluated and recorded. Methods for collagen and DNA isolation, quantification of protein, collagen, haemoglobin (Hb), free pyrrole content (FPC), ninhydrin reactive nitrogen (NRN), total iron, Fe2+ and Fe3+ as well as a real-time PCR method for the detection of mitochondrial cytb gene in porcine teeth were established. These methods were used to determine the concentration and structural integrity of these molecules in the LBM and FM teeth. The morphology of the LBM teeth was regular with only minor changes in colour with time heated. The collagen and Hb concentration did not change with time. A decrease in total iron (not statistically significant) and Fe3+ (p=0.014; R2=0.74) was found and was associated with an increase in Fe2+ (p=0.014; R2=0.965). No change in free pyrolle content was found. The total protein concentration determined using the Biuret method showed a decrease with time (p=0.009; R2=0.99). For DNA, a linear decrease in concentration (p=0.00; R2=0.93) was found. This DNA could still be used for the successful amplification of the cytb gene. As for DNA a similar decrease in NRN (p=0.00; R2=0.99) was also found whether this is related to protein or DNA degradation is unknown. From this data the total protein, DNA and NRN showed a definite time related change in concentration. For the field model the teeth were brown, cracked, weathered and corroded. As for LBM, there were no time related changes in mass and collagen content. A significant decrease in total protein concentration (p=0.00; R2=0.52) and FPC (p=0.01; R2=0.98) was observed. Hb, FPC and iron levels (total iron, Fe3+ and Fe 2) did not change with time but concentrations FPC and iron were higher than those found in the LBM. Also total protein concentration although it decreases with time was also increased when compared to the LBM (sentence is awkward, re-word). This could be due to increase bacteria activity that results in an increase in protein biomass, iron accumulation and pyrolle synthesis. In contrast Hb levels were the same as LBM and are species specific and not related to increased bacterial activity. NRN showed a time related decrease in concentration (p=0.09; R2=0.99) and was also twice that found in the LBM. This is related to decomposition of porcine protein and DNA as well as that derived from bacteria. A decrease in DNA concentration with time was found (p=0.00; R2=0.88). DNA from all samples and could be used for the amplification of cytb. In conclusion the LBM allows for rapid method development and the investigation of the effect of single factors on the integrity of bio-molecules such as protein and DNA. The FM can then be used to further investigate the effect of many additional environmental factors on the concentration and structure of the same bio-molecules. Using both models, it was found that total protein, DNA and NRN showed a time related change in concentration while the concentration of collagen and Hb remained constant. Copyright / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2011. / Anatomy / unrestricted

Univerzita Karlova Přírodovědecká fakulta Antropologie a Genetika člověka Alizé Lacoste Jeanson, M.Sc. "NÁVRAT SVALŮ A TUKU ZPĚT NA KOSTI": 3D ANALÝZA VLIVU TĚLESNÉ KOMPOZICE A HMOTNOSTI NA KOSTNÍ ARCHITEKTURU "PUTTING FLESH AND FAT BACK ONTO THE BONES": A 3D ANALYSIS OF THE INFLUENCE OF BODY COMPOSITION AND MASS ON BONE ARCHITECTURE Disertačnn prace Doctoral thesis Školitel Supervisor: Prof. RNDr. Jaroslav Brůžek, CSc, PhD, HDR Praha, 2018 Prague, 2018 Charles University Faculty of Science Department of Anthropology and Human Genetics Abstract The understanding of biomechanics is essential to various studies in bioanthropology. Bone is a living tissue that constantly remodels in order to functionally adapt to biomechanical constrains. Long bones diaphyses in particular have been subjected to various analyses notably because the application of beam engineering principles has rendered possible the evaluation of their resistance to various directional constrains based on their shape. Body mass estimation methods lie on this principle. Body mass is partially used since the nineties as a proxy to control the influence of body size on bone's architecture prior to interpreting variations between populations. More recently, they have been used to estimate physical status (i.e. emaciation, norm, obesity)....

In forensic anthropology, methods for estimating sex from the skeleton have historically been developed on skeletal collections comprised exclusively U.S. Black and white populations and thus inherently rely on ancestry estimation as a foundational component for the construction of the biological profile. However, these population-specific methods of sex estimation fundamentally limit the applicability, accuracy, and reliability of the method for use on remains of diverse population affiliations (ancestry). A reliable and population-inclusive method for estimating sex in the skeleton can serve as a useful tool for forensic investigators, especially in cases with unidentified remains where the population affiliation is indeterminate and in light of recent discourse involving the removal of ancestry estimation from the biological profile as a whole This study assessed the reliability of population-inclusive nonmetric and metric sex estimation from 3D-volume rendered computer tomography (CT) scans of the skull. The study sample was comprised of 431 individuals (242 males and 189 female) from the New Mexico Decedent Imaging Database (NMDID) and included a relatively equal distribution of African American, Asian American, European American, Latin American, and Native American population affinities. The images were obtained from the CT slices using 3D-reconstructions and volume rendering technique (VRT) in the Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine (DICOM) viewer, exported to Meshmixer™ and then processed to isolate the skull from the postcranial skeleton and remove identifying objects. In Meshmixer™, nonmetric traits were scored following Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994) and Walker (2008) and included the supraorbital ridge/glabella, supraorbital margin, mastoid process, mental eminence and nuchal crest. The metric traits, following Spradley and Jantz (2011), included 18 points of measurement of the cranium and mandible. Binary logistic regression (BLR) and discriminant function analyses (DFA) were used to produce models and probabilities from the nonmetric a metric data respectively and an additional binary logistic regression was developed that combined both the nonmetric and metric data. Overall, the population-inclusive nonmetric and metric model produced classification accuracies that ranged from 81-87% and 86.7-87% respectively, and performed as well as population-specific models in estimating sex and were not significantly different from population-specific accuracies. When some of the population-specific models were applied across population, particularly the European American model, the classification accuracy was significantly reduced relative to the population-inclusive model. Intraobserver error was assessed for the nonmetric and metric data collection and confirmed that the nonmetric and metric methods of data collection for the volume-rendered images was consistent. The results of this study indicate that a population-inclusive nonmetric and metric models of sex estimation using the skull can be used in place of more traditional population-specific models in cases where ancestry is unknown, indeterminate, or in the event ancestry is removed from the biological profile.

This project histologically examined weathering on faunal bones. The sample consisted of a mixture of faunal remains, assessed and assigned to weathering stages (WS) 0-2 from Behrensmeyer’s (1978) scoring method. A total of 77 bones sections were observed for histological analysis. A portion were obtained, partially fleshed, commercially and were placed at the Outdoor Research Facility (ORF) in Holliston, MA. After deposition, bones were collected at specific time intervals allowing for 2, 4, 6, 8, 12, and 18-month exposure times. Bones were also collected from several outdoor locations in Ohio, having been exposed for an unknown period, and ranging from WS 0-2. Following histological preparation of the sample, the microstructure of each weathering stage was observed using the image analysis software Fiji from the National Institutes of Health (NIH). Data recorded included the number of cracks present per unit area and the depth of cracking. The number of cracks per unit area for each section of bone was calculated by dividing the number of cracks per section by the total section area resulting in number of cracks per mm2. Depth of cracking was analyzed through maximum crack length and average crack length. This data was compiled and one-way ANOVA tests were applied to determine where weathering stage and exposure time were statistically significant. This was followed by Bonferroni post-hoc analyses which were utilized to analyze the interactions within the WS and exposure time variables; to allow for analysis of statistical significance of WS to one another and exposure time intervals to one another. It was hypothesized that different weathering states would be statistically significant from one another, and microscopically identifiable through a histological examination, and that these would be able to be differentiated from other sources of microtaphonomic alteration including burial and thermal alteration. It was also hypothesized that exposure time would significantly impact the histological characteristics including the number of cracks per mm2 and the maximum and average crack depth. One-way ANOVA analysis indicated that WS has a significant impact on the number of cracks per mm2 and the maximum crack length. No significance was observed for analysis of WS and average crack length. Post-hoc analysis involving the number of cracks per mm2 revealed statistical significance between WS 0 and WS 1, WS 0 and WS 2. Analysis involving maximum crack length indicated significance only between WS 0 and WS 1. Post-hoc analysis involving average crack length did not indicate any statistically significant relationships between the WS. One-way ANOVA analysis of exposure time indicated that exposure time has a significant impact when on all three variables: number of cracks per mm2, average crack length, and maximum crack length. Post-hoc analysis involving the number of cracks per mm2 found that months 0, 2, 4, 6, and 8 were all statistically significant from 18 months. Analysis of average crack length revealed that months 0 and 2 were both statistically from 8 months of exposure. Post-hoc analysis involving maximum crack length reveals statistical significance between months 0 and 8, 0 and 12, and 2 and 8. Histological characteristics of weathered bone were found to include delamination and cracking. Delamination was observed on several bones in WS 2 and one in WS 1, while cracking was observed in bones of all stages. Positive relationships were observed between WS and number of cracks per mm2, and between exposure time and cracks per mm2 indicating that as one increased so did the other. No trend was observed for the relationship between exposure time and either of the crack length variables; the same was observed for the relationship between WS and the two crack length variables. Through comparison of the histological characteristics of weathered bone with other sources of microtaphonomic alterations, it was determined that weathering and its histological characteristics are different from other alteration sources, including burial and thermal alteration, to allow for determination of the microtaphonomic process affecting the bone.

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The fields of Transitional Justice and Forensic Archaeology and Anthropology are all, one way or another, in the service of Truth Finding; theoretically they should be incorporated within each other’s theoretical frameworks and mechanisms, as the fields have considerate overlap. Approaching the fields from an academic perspective, one will soon learn that, although connected by Truth, their academic foundations are vastly different, in every sense possible; their ontology, epistemology as well as their dissemination of research. This work investigates whether the aforementioned elements impact the connectedness between fields. With the aid of Quantitative Content Analysis, Expert Interviews and statistical analysis, this work sets out to create an interdisciplinary Mixed Method piece of research. The results indicate that although awareness of the other fields exists, the data suggests that it is below the threshold of what it should be. The ontology, epistemology and dissemination have major roles is the gap of connectedness, however other developments in the past and present drive a wedge between the fields.

We present an unusual example of multiple mesosternal foramina (MMF). The alignment of the paired defects is unlike any previously described. Although single sternal defects are often encountered, paired defects are quite uncommon. This is the first documented example of bilateral paired defects in the sternum.