As florestas nativas desempenham papel importante nos processos hidrológicoas, como regulação e provisão de água ao longo do ano. As mudanças do uso do solo, e o manejo intensivo das florestas plantadas podem causar efeitos sobre essas funções hidrológicas. As atividades de manejo do solo podem afetar os tipos de mecanismos de geração de escoamento superficial, o escoamento hortoniano, o escoamento superficial de áreas saturadas e o escoamento sub-superficial, o que por consequência afeta a disponibilidade de água em quantidade e qualidade. Diante disso, o objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a geração de escoamento direto em microbacias hidrográficas com coberturas florestais. Sendo que, o segundo capítulo teve como objetivo avaliar o regime hidrológico e os tipos de mecanismos de geração de escoamento superficial em microbacia hidrográfica coberta por floresta nativa e em microbacia hidrográfica coberta por floresta plantada de Pinus spp. Na microbacia com floresta plantada de Pinus spp. a demanda hídrica foi alta, com rendimento hídrico menor que 10%. E mesmo com as atividades de manejo do solo, as propriedades do solo foram mantidas e o escoamento base foi maior e apresentou baixo coeficiente de escoamento. A microbacia coberta por floresta nativa apresentou rendimento hídrico acima de 10%, com índice de escoamento base maior que o escoamento direto, porém apresentou um maior coeficiente de escoamento. O que pode ter ocorrido devido às características físicas e pedológicas da área, relevo íngreme e solo com textura franca. Os resultados de condutividade hidráulica do solo saturado foram maiores que a intensidade da precipitação nas duas microbacias hidrográficas, mostrando que não é para ocorrer escoamento superficial hortoniano. Assim ocorreu predomínio de escoamento direto por meio do mecanismo de escoamento superficial de áreas saturadas. No terceiro capítulo foram avaliadas metodologias de caracterização das áreas variáveis de afluência nas duas microbacias hidrográficas. A metodologia da frequência de saturação se mostrou um método eficaz, em que as áreas variáveis de afluência ocorreram em 18,5% e 13,2%, na microbacia com floresta plantada de Pinus e na microbacia com floresta nativa, respectivamente. Já o método da relação escoamento direto-precipitação subestimou a área variável de afluência na microbacia com floresta plantada de Pinus, mas na microbacia com floresta nativa a quantidade de área foi semelhante. Os resultados demostraram que, mesmo com manejo florestal os processos hidrológicos estão ocorrendo na microbacia com floresta plantada de Pinus. E o planejamento florestal deve considerar ocorrência das áreas saturadas nas áreas de plantio e evitar atividades na época chuvosa e a construção de estradas nessas áreas. / Native forest plays an important role in hydrological process, such as regulation and provision of water, however land-use change, and intensive management of planted forest can modify the hydrological functions. Soil management can affect types of overland flow generation mechanism, the infiltration excess overland flow or Hortonian flow and the saturation excess overland flow, which consequently affects the availability of water in quantity and quality. The objective of this work was to understand the generation of overland flow in catchments with forest cover. In the second chapter, the aim was to characterize hydrologically and to understand the types of overland flow mechanism in a catchment covered by forest plantation of Pinus and in a catchment covered by native forest. In the catchment covered by forest plantation of Pinus, the water demand was high, with water yield lower than 10%. And even with the soil management, the soil properties were maintained, and the base flow was higher, and the flow coefficient was lower. The catchment covered by native forest presented high water yield, with base flow higher than the overland flow, but presented a high flow coefficient. This may have occurred due to the physical and pedological characteristics of the area, such as steep terrain and the frank soil. The soil saturated hydraulic conductivity was higher than the precipitation intensity in the two catchments, showing that the Hortonian overland flow does not occur, thus, to occur the saturation excess overland flow mechanism. In the third chapter, the aim of the work was to evaluate methodologies for characterizing the variable source areas in the two catchments. The saturation frequency methodology showed an effective method, the variable source area occurred in 18,5% of the forest plantation of Pinus catchments area, and 13,2% of the total area of the native forest catchment. The overland flow-precipitation ratio underestimated the saturated areas in the forest plantation of Pinus catchment, however in the native forest catchment the amount of saturated areas was similar. The results showed that the forest management does not affected the hydrological process in the catchment with forest plantation of Pinus. And the forest management planning should consider the occurrence of saturated areas in the planting areas and to avoid activities in the rainy season and the construction of roads in these areas.

A expansão das áreas de reflorestamento colocam em evidência os possíveis efeitos destas nos recursos hídricos. Tendo como principal característica o crescimento acelerado, as florestas plantadas apresentam elevadas taxas de evapotranspiração, e, embora não sejam consideradas usuárias de água, o consumo das mesmas modifica a produção de água na microbacia. Buscando entender este cenário, o objetivo do estudo foi identificar alternativas de corte raso em mosaico a serem utilizadas para mitigar os efeitos das florestas plantadas nos recursos hídricos. Foram testados variáveis de intensidade e configuração espacial do corte raso e seus efeitos obtidos por meio de simulações chuva-vazão na microbacia experimental de Itatinga. O estudo foi dividido em duas partes, a primeira foi referente à análise do consumo por meio da curva de permanência do deflúvio em diferentes cenários de intensidade de corte, e a segunda pela simulação hidrológica distribuída de cenários de corte variáveis tanto na intensidade quanto na localização. A partir dos resultados obtidos foram realizadas comparações com as vazões mínimas de referência (Q7.10 e Q90) para quantificação do consumo de água das florestas ao longo do tempo. Os resultados mostraram que quando totalmente coberta com floresta o consumo de água sempre ficava além do recomendado, conforme o corte da cobertura simulado era intensificado (até 100% de corte) os valores de consumo caiam, sendo que a partir de cinquenta porcento de corte o deflúvio ficava abaixo dos dois índices de vazão mínima de referência analisados. Na segunda parte do estudo os cenários de intensidade e localização do corte (30, 50 e 70% de corte nas cotas baixas e altas) foram comparados com a referência - cobertura total com floresta - e os resultados analisados quanto ao escoamento total, pico de vazão e volume dos eventos. Foi também simulado um cenário para a análise do efeito da vegetação ripária na redução dos impactos. Os resultados mostraram que os efeitos das diferentes intensidades de corte raso estão relacionados a altura total precipitada, pois apresentaram diferenças significativas para os menores eventos de chuva, não tendo as intensidades diferenças no corte para os maiores eventos (lâminas de chuva acima de 15 mm). A localização do corte nas cotas baixas da bacia resultou em picos de vazão e volume maiores do que o cenário referência para uma mesma intensidade de corte. Quando os cortes foram realizados nas cotas altas os resultados não diferiram significativamente do cenário referência em nenhuma porcentagem de corte, com exceção para a altura precipitada entre 4 e 8 mm. As simulações dos efeitos da floresta ripária mostraram que quando mantida ao longo do rio a vegetação diminui o escoamento direto, no entanto, este efeito depende da intensidade do evento de chuva, não sendo significativo para grandes eventos. Por meio dos dados foi possível concluir que o corte em mosaico é uma ferramenta que deve ser utilizada no manejo das florestas plantadas, pois por meio deste é possível diminuir o consumo através da intensidade e mitigar os efeitos do aumento do escoamento por meio da localização do corte. / The expansion of areas of planted forests shows possible effects they have on water resources. Due to the characteristics of accelerated growth, commercial reforestations have high rates of evapotranspiration. Although planted forests are not considered water users, their consumption modifies water production in the watershed. Seeking to understand this scenario, the objective of this study was to identify alternatives to clear-cutting in mosaic that can be used to mitigate the effects of planted forests in water resources. Variables of intensity and spatial configuration of clear-cutting and its effects obtained through rain-flow simulations were tested in the experimental watershed of Itatinga. The study was divided into two parts, the first consisted of the analysis of consumption through the flow permanence curve in different scenarios of cut intensity, and the second was characterized by hydrological simulation of distributed variable cutting scenarios both in intensity and in location. The results were used to compare with the minimum flow rates of reference (Q7.10 and Q90) to quantify water consumption of forests over time, measuring the relationship between consumption and minimum reference flow. The results showed that when fully covered with forest, water consumption was always beyond the recommended, and as the simulated cut of the vegetation cover was enhanced (until 100% cutting), consumption values dropped. After 50 percent of cutting, runoff remained below two rates of minimum flow reference analyzed. In the second part of the study, the scenarios of intensity and location of cuts (30, 50 and 70% of cut in downstream and upstream) were compared with reference - complete forest cover - and the results were analyzed in terms of total runoff, peak flow and volume of events. It was also simulated a scenario for the analysis of the effects of riparian vegetation on the reduction of impacts caused by the clear-cutting of the planted forest. The effects of different intensities of clear-cutting are related to the size of the event of rain, because they showed significant differences for smaller rain events, however, no differences in the intensities were observed for greater events (precipitation above 15 mm). The location of the cut in downstream scenarios resulted at peak flow and volume larger than the reference scenario for the same cut intensity. When the cuts were made in upstream, the results did not differ significantly from the reference scenario in any percentage of cut, except for the rain size between 4 and 8 mm. Simulations of the effects of riparian forest showed that when they are kept along the river, the vegetation decreases the direct runoff, however, this effect depends on the intensity of the rain event, not being significant for large events. The use of data allowed to conclude that the cut in mosaic is a tool that could be used in the management of planted forests, as it decreases consumption through intensity and mitigates the effects of increased runoff due to the location of the cut.

A expansão das áreas de reflorestamento colocam em evidência os possíveis efeitos destas nos recursos hídricos. Tendo como principal característica o crescimento acelerado, as florestas plantadas apresentam elevadas taxas de evapotranspiração, e, embora não sejam consideradas usuárias de água, o consumo das mesmas modifica a produção de água na microbacia. Buscando entender este cenário, o objetivo do estudo foi identificar alternativas de corte raso em mosaico a serem utilizadas para mitigar os efeitos das florestas plantadas nos recursos hídricos. Foram testados variáveis de intensidade e configuração espacial do corte raso e seus efeitos obtidos por meio de simulações chuva-vazão na microbacia experimental de Itatinga. O estudo foi dividido em duas partes, a primeira foi referente à análise do consumo por meio da curva de permanência do deflúvio em diferentes cenários de intensidade de corte, e a segunda pela simulação hidrológica distribuída de cenários de corte variáveis tanto na intensidade quanto na localização. A partir dos resultados obtidos foram realizadas comparações com as vazões mínimas de referência (Q7.10 e Q90) para quantificação do consumo de água das florestas ao longo do tempo. Os resultados mostraram que quando totalmente coberta com floresta o consumo de água sempre ficava além do recomendado, conforme o corte da cobertura simulado era intensificado (até 100% de corte) os valores de consumo caiam, sendo que a partir de cinquenta porcento de corte o deflúvio ficava abaixo dos dois índices de vazão mínima de referência analisados. Na segunda parte do estudo os cenários de intensidade e localização do corte (30, 50 e 70% de corte nas cotas baixas e altas) foram comparados com a referência - cobertura total com floresta - e os resultados analisados quanto ao escoamento total, pico de vazão e volume dos eventos. Foi também simulado um cenário para a análise do efeito da vegetação ripária na redução dos impactos. Os resultados mostraram que os efeitos das diferentes intensidades de corte raso estão relacionados a altura total precipitada, pois apresentaram diferenças significativas para os menores eventos de chuva, não tendo as intensidades diferenças no corte para os maiores eventos (lâminas de chuva acima de 15 mm). A localização do corte nas cotas baixas da bacia resultou em picos de vazão e volume maiores do que o cenário referência para uma mesma intensidade de corte. Quando os cortes foram realizados nas cotas altas os resultados não diferiram significativamente do cenário referência em nenhuma porcentagem de corte, com exceção para a altura precipitada entre 4 e 8 mm. As simulações dos efeitos da floresta ripária mostraram que quando mantida ao longo do rio a vegetação diminui o escoamento direto, no entanto, este efeito depende da intensidade do evento de chuva, não sendo significativo para grandes eventos. Por meio dos dados foi possível concluir que o corte em mosaico é uma ferramenta que deve ser utilizada no manejo das florestas plantadas, pois por meio deste é possível diminuir o consumo através da intensidade e mitigar os efeitos do aumento do escoamento por meio da localização do corte. / The expansion of areas of planted forests shows possible effects they have on water resources. Due to the characteristics of accelerated growth, commercial reforestations have high rates of evapotranspiration. Although planted forests are not considered water users, their consumption modifies water production in the watershed. Seeking to understand this scenario, the objective of this study was to identify alternatives to clear-cutting in mosaic that can be used to mitigate the effects of planted forests in water resources. Variables of intensity and spatial configuration of clear-cutting and its effects obtained through rain-flow simulations were tested in the experimental watershed of Itatinga. The study was divided into two parts, the first consisted of the analysis of consumption through the flow permanence curve in different scenarios of cut intensity, and the second was characterized by hydrological simulation of distributed variable cutting scenarios both in intensity and in location. The results were used to compare with the minimum flow rates of reference (Q7.10 and Q90) to quantify water consumption of forests over time, measuring the relationship between consumption and minimum reference flow. The results showed that when fully covered with forest, water consumption was always beyond the recommended, and as the simulated cut of the vegetation cover was enhanced (until 100% cutting), consumption values dropped. After 50 percent of cutting, runoff remained below two rates of minimum flow reference analyzed. In the second part of the study, the scenarios of intensity and location of cuts (30, 50 and 70% of cut in downstream and upstream) were compared with reference - complete forest cover - and the results were analyzed in terms of total runoff, peak flow and volume of events. It was also simulated a scenario for the analysis of the effects of riparian vegetation on the reduction of impacts caused by the clear-cutting of the planted forest. The effects of different intensities of clear-cutting are related to the size of the event of rain, because they showed significant differences for smaller rain events, however, no differences in the intensities were observed for greater events (precipitation above 15 mm). The location of the cut in downstream scenarios resulted at peak flow and volume larger than the reference scenario for the same cut intensity. When the cuts were made in upstream, the results did not differ significantly from the reference scenario in any percentage of cut, except for the rain size between 4 and 8 mm. Simulations of the effects of riparian forest showed that when they are kept along the river, the vegetation decreases the direct runoff, however, this effect depends on the intensity of the rain event, not being significant for large events. The use of data allowed to conclude that the cut in mosaic is a tool that could be used in the management of planted forests, as it decreases consumption through intensity and mitigates the effects of increased runoff due to the location of the cut.

Our understanding of subsurface flow depends on assumptions of how event characteristics and spatial scale affect the relationships between subsurface water velocity, discharge, water table dynamics, and runoff response. In this thesis, three chapters explore some of these patterns for a hillslope and small watershed in coastal British Columbia. In the first chapter, tracers were applied under natural and steady state conditions to determine the relationship between lateral tracer velocities and various hillslope and event characteristics; such as hillslope subsurface flow, rainfall intensity, water table level, hillslope length, and antecedent condition. The results showed that preferential flow made up a large percentage of the subsurface flow from the gauged hillslope. Flow velocities as measured by tracers were affected by slope length and boundary conditions. The flow velocity was most closely related to the rainfall intensity, and changes in flow velocity were large compared to the changes in the water table. In the second chapter, the preferential flow features that transmitted water during steady state were investigated by staining the soil with a food dye solution and excavating the soil. These data were used to explore the link between the topographical factors (slope and contributing area), the network of preferential features and soil properties. The contributing area appeared to be an indicator of the size of the preferential features and their connectivity. In the final manuscript chapter, water table level and stream discharge measurements were used to determine if areas within a watershed with runoff dominated by preferential flow could be grouped based on the observable physical information such as slope, contributing area, distance to stream, and vegetation. Preferential flow made the water table responses dynamic and thus, distinct zones could not be identified. Models of the water table – runoff were not able to predict the water table response for other sites with similar physical characteristics. Even though there was high variability in the results, the patterns and relationships revealed in this thesis conform to existing conceptual models of hillslope subsurface preferential flow. These patterns and relationships may be useful in developing or validating numerical models.

Our understanding of subsurface flow depends on assumptions of how event characteristics and spatial scale affect the relationships between subsurface water velocity, discharge, water table dynamics, and runoff response. In this thesis, three chapters explore some of these patterns for a hillslope and small watershed in coastal British Columbia. In the first chapter, tracers were applied under natural and steady state conditions to determine the relationship between lateral tracer velocities and various hillslope and event characteristics; such as hillslope subsurface flow, rainfall intensity, water table level, hillslope length, and antecedent condition. The results showed that preferential flow made up a large percentage of the subsurface flow from the gauged hillslope. Flow velocities as measured by tracers were affected by slope length and boundary conditions. The flow velocity was most closely related to the rainfall intensity, and changes in flow velocity were large compared to the changes in the water table. In the second chapter, the preferential flow features that transmitted water during steady state were investigated by staining the soil with a food dye solution and excavating the soil. These data were used to explore the link between the topographical factors (slope and contributing area), the network of preferential features and soil properties. The contributing area appeared to be an indicator of the size of the preferential features and their connectivity. In the final manuscript chapter, water table level and stream discharge measurements were used to determine if areas within a watershed with runoff dominated by preferential flow could be grouped based on the observable physical information such as slope, contributing area, distance to stream, and vegetation. Preferential flow made the water table responses dynamic and thus, distinct zones could not be identified. Models of the water table – runoff were not able to predict the water table response for other sites with similar physical characteristics. Even though there was high variability in the results, the patterns and relationships revealed in this thesis conform to existing conceptual models of hillslope subsurface preferential flow. These patterns and relationships may be useful in developing or validating numerical models.

Submitted by CAIO VINICIUS FERREIRA MARMONTEL (caioomarmontel@gmail.com) on 2018-05-30T19:16:14Z No. of bitstreams: 1 tese_caiovfmarmontel.pdf: 3393744 bytes, checksum: c80daca7ae4e8871496c00cb8b548ba6 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Maria Lucia Martins Frederico null (mlucia@fca.unesp.br) on 2018-06-04T13:57:05Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 marmontel_cvf_dr_botfca.pdf: 3241299 bytes, checksum: 194185ca33e9c13c6ba04b1dabe49aae (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-06-04T13:57:05Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 marmontel_cvf_dr_botfca.pdf: 3241299 bytes, checksum: 194185ca33e9c13c6ba04b1dabe49aae (MD5) Previous issue date: 2018-05-03 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / A água disponível para o consumo humano vem se tornando cada vez mais escassa, um exemplo, foi a crise hídrica iniciada em 2014 na Região Metropolitana de São Paulo. Diante desse problema, uma possibilidade de melhorar a compreensão do comportamento hidrológico, é a utilização de tecnologias, ou seja, as bases computacionais, em especial a integração do SIG com a modelagem hidrológica, por possuir um grande potencial de estimar quantitativamente a vazão. O presente estudo teve como objetivo testar a aplicabilidade do modelo hidrológico SWAT para estimação de vazões em um trecho da bacia hidrográfica do rio Paraibuna - Vale do Paraíba, região da Mata Atlântica, no estado de São Paulo. O rio Paraibuna utiliza suas águas para gerar energia elétrica e é um dos formadores do rio Paraíba do Sul, importante corpo d’água da região sudeste do Brasil. Os dados climáticos e fluviométricos foram coletados no LHFWE/PESM-NC com uma série histórica de 22 anos. O trecho da bacia hidrográfica estudada tem elevação de 974 a 1662 metros, cinco tipos de solos e três tipos de usos da terra. As avaliações dos dados observados e simulados na calibração e validação foram feitas por meio da avaliação dos gráficos-visuais de dispersão, hidrogramas e índices estatísticos pelo SWAT-CUP. Os dados gerados do balanço hídrico pelo SWAT, após a calibração foram valores próximos com a realidade. Na calibração e validação foi verificado boa aderência entre os dados simulados e observados, ou seja, os valores simulados reconheceram os picos e recessões dos valores observados. Os índices estatísticos (NS, PBIAS, RSR e R²) calculados para a calibração e validação do SWAT foram qualificados como “muito bom” para a estimação das vazões. Os resultados confirmaram a aplicabilidade do modelo, dessa forma, pode servir como ferramenta para planejamento e gestão de políticas públicas dos recursos hídricos em bacias hidrográficas, na região da Mata Atlântica. O modelo hidrológico SWAT mostrou-se muito bom e apto para estimação de vazões e do balanço hídrico no trecho da bacia hidrográfica do rio Paraibuna. / The water available for human consumption is becoming increasingly scarce, an example was the water crisis started in 2014 in the Metropolitan Region of São Paulo. Faced with this problem, one possibility to improve the understanding of hydrological behavior, is the use of technologies, that is, the computational bases, especially the integration of GIS with hydrological modeling, because it has a great potential of quantitatively estimate the flow rate. The present study had as objective to test the applicability of the SWAT hydrological model for flow estimation in the stretch of the Paraibuna river basin - Paraiba Valley, in the Atlantic Forest region, in the state of São Paulo. The Paraibuna River uses its waters to generate electricity and is one of the creators of the river South Paraiba, an important body of water in the southeastern region of Brazil. Climatic and fluviometric data were collected at the LHFWE/PESM-NC with a historical series of 22 years. The stretch of the studied basin has elevation of 974 to 1662 meters, five types of soils and three types of land use. The evaluations of the data observed and simulated in the calibration and validation were done by means of the evaluation of the visual graphics of dispersion, hydrograms and statistical indexes by SWAT-CUP. The data generated from the SWAT water balance after calibration, were close to reality. In the calibration and validation, in good adherence was observed between the simulated and observed data, that is, the simulated values recognized the peaks and recessions of the observed values. The statistical indices (NS, PBIAS, RSR and R²) calculated for SWAT calibration and validation were qualified as "very good" for the estimation of flows. The results confirmed the applicability of the model, so it can serve as a tool for planning and management of water resources public policies in watersheds, in the Atlantic Forest region. The SWAT hydrological model was very good and suitable for estimation of flow and water balance in the stretch of the Paraibuna river basin. / 1513206

Our understanding of subsurface flow depends on assumptions of how event characteristics and spatial scale affect the relationships between subsurface water velocity, discharge, water table dynamics, and runoff response. In this thesis, three chapters explore some of these patterns for a hillslope and small watershed in coastal British Columbia. In the first chapter, tracers were applied under natural and steady state conditions to determine the relationship between lateral tracer velocities and various hillslope and event characteristics; such as hillslope subsurface flow, rainfall intensity, water table level, hillslope length, and antecedent condition. The results showed that preferential flow made up a large percentage of the subsurface flow from the gauged hillslope. Flow velocities as measured by tracers were affected by slope length and boundary conditions. The flow velocity was most closely related to the rainfall intensity, and changes in flow velocity were large compared to the changes in the water table. In the second chapter, the preferential flow features that transmitted water during steady state were investigated by staining the soil with a food dye solution and excavating the soil. These data were used to explore the link between the topographical factors (slope and contributing area), the network of preferential features and soil properties. The contributing area appeared to be an indicator of the size of the preferential features and their connectivity. In the final manuscript chapter, water table level and stream discharge measurements were used to determine if areas within a watershed with runoff dominated by preferential flow could be grouped based on the observable physical information such as slope, contributing area, distance to stream, and vegetation. Preferential flow made the water table responses dynamic and thus, distinct zones could not be identified. Models of the water table – runoff were not able to predict the water table response for other sites with similar physical characteristics. Even though there was high variability in the results, the patterns and relationships revealed in this thesis conform to existing conceptual models of hillslope subsurface preferential flow. These patterns and relationships may be useful in developing or validating numerical models. / Forestry, Faculty of / Graduate

Tesis por compendio / Assessment of forest water-use (WU) is undoubtedly important and necessary, especially in water scarcity areas that are already suffering the main negative impacts of climate change. However, instead of just determining how much water is used by a forest, it is also important to evaluate how forest-WU responds to forest management practices such as thinning, a widely recognized alternative to promote improvements in the hydrologic balance while maintaining or improving forest resilience. Thus, this thesis proposes three integrated studies performed in an area of Aleppo pine subject to experimental thinning in Eastern Spain. The first study was modelling an artificial neural network (ANN) to estimate daily WU independently of forest heterogeneity provided by thinning. Stand WU was accurately estimated using climate data, soil water content and forest cover (correlation coefficient, R: 0.95; Nash-Sutcliffe coefficient, E: 0.90 and rootmean-square error, RMSE: 0.078mm/day). Then the ANN modelled was used for gapfilling when needed and those results were used in the following studies. The secondly study addressed the question of how tree-growth, WU and water balance changed as a consequence of thinning. To this end, the influence of thinning intensity and its effect at short-term (thinned in 2008) and at mid-term (thinned in 1998) on the water-balance components and tree-growth were investigated. The high-intensity thinning treatment showed significant increases in mean annual tree-growth from 4.1 to 17.3 cm2 yr -1 , a rate which was maintained in the mid-term. Mean daily WU ranged from 5 (control) to 18 (high intensity thinning) l tree-1 . However, when expressed on stand basis, daily WU ranged from 0.18 (medium intensity thinning) to 0.30 mm (control plot), meaning that in spite of the higher WU rates in the remaining trees, stand WU was reduced with thinning. Large differences were found in the water balance components between thinning plots and control. These differences might have significant implications to maintain forest resilience, and improve forest management practices. The third study, brings forth two interesting points and their responses to thinning, WU and intrinsic water-use efficiency (WUEi). First, the relationships between growth and climate were studied at mid-term in order to identify if thinning can improve forest resilience. Second, the relationships between WU and WUEi was explored to identify how these factors were affected by thinning at short-term. A substantial limitation of tree-growth imposed by climatic conditions was observed, although thinning changed the tree-growth-precipitation relationships. Significant differences in WUEi were found after thinning at mid-term, however no significant difference was observed at short-term. Despite this, in general WUEi decreased when precipitation increased, with different slopes for each thinning intensity. Different patterns of the relationship between WU and WUEi were found, being positive for thinned plots and negative for control plot at short-term. Finally this thesis suggest that thinning in Aleppo pine plantations is effective in changing the relationships between WU and WUEi, furthermore, this thesis introduces a novel contribution by looking at the inter-related effects on growth, WU, WUEi and water balance in Mediterranean forest subject to thinning. / Gualberto Fernandes, TJ. (2014). Water-oriented management in forest plantations: combining hydrology, dendrochronology and ecophysiology [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/48476 / Compendio

O presente trabalho consistiu na caracterização hidrológica de duas microbacias visando identificar critérios e indicadores hidrológicos que possam contribuir para a implementação de melhores práticas de manejo nas plantações de eucalipto e para o esclarecimento de possíveis impactos dessa atividade sobre a produção de água em quantidade e qualidade, na escala da microbacia hidrográfica. As microbacias experimentais monitoradas localizam-se na Fazenda Santa Terezinha, município de Bofete (SP). A microbacia E possui Eucalyptus grandis, usado para fins de serraria pela Eucatex S.A. Situada na mesma vertente da Bacia do Rio do Peixe, a microbacia P é destinada à pecuária extensiva, uso tradicional da terra na região. A caracterização hidrológica quantitativa baseou-se na análise dos dados pluviométricos e fluviométricos obtidos no decorrer de 2 anos de monitoramento contínuo (novembro de 2000 a outubro de 2002). A precipitação média anual registrada no ano hídrico de nov/00 a out/01 foi de 1.893,80 mm e 1.407,90 para nov/01 a out/02. O deflúvio anual para a microbacia E no primeiro ano hídrico foi de 148,76 mm e de 125,62 mm, para o segundo. As perdas médias ocasionadas por evapotranspiração no período monitorado somaram 1.513,66 mm. Para a microbacia P, o deflúvio observado para o ano hídrico de nov/00 a out/01 correspondeu a 383,35 mm e para nov/01 a out/02, 365,67 mm. As perdas médias por evapotranspiração nessa microbacia corresponderam a 1276,34 mm. A temperatura média observa entre set/01 a ago/02 foi de 21,38 ºC e a umidade relativa média, de 69,67 %. A microbacia P apresentou uma maior variação para todos os parâmetros físico-químicos usados para avaliar a qualidade da água do deflúvio e uma resiliência menor. As reduzidas concentrações de nutrientes no deflúvio da microbacia E e seu padrão estável de comportamento indicam melhor estabilidade hidrológica equilíbrio da floresta. Na microbacia E verificou-se que a resistência do solo à penetração para a linha de plantio, entre árvores foi inferior àquela observada fora da linha de plantio. Para a microbacia P, a avaliação foi feita na trilha de pisoteio do gado e fora da trilha, sendo que na trilha os valores de densidade do solo e índice de compactação foram mais expressivos. Os indicadores visuais sugeridos mostraram correspondência com os demais resultados observados. As microbacias hidrográficas monitoradas fazem parte do programa mais abrangente de Monitoramento e Modelagem de Bacias Hidrográficas desenvolvido pelo Instituto de Pesquisa e Estudos Florestais, através do Laboratório de Hidrologia Florestal do Departamento de Ciências Florestais da Escola Superior de Agricultura "Luiz de Queiroz", Universidade de São Paulo (ESALQ/USP). / The present work consisted of the hydrological characterization of two catchments aiming to identify hydrologic criteria and indicators that can contribute for the implementation of better management practices of Eucalyptus plantations, as well as the evaluation of possible impacts of these activities on catchment yield and quality. The experimental catchments are located at Fazenda Santa Terezinha, Bofete (SP). The catchment E is covered with Eucalyptus grandis, management for sawmill situated at Eucatex S.A. Catchment P is covered with pasture, traditional land use in the region. The quantitative hydrological characterization was based on the analysis of rainfall and streamflow data during two consecutive years (November of 2000 the October of 2002). The average annual precipitation for the water year of nov/00 out/01 was 1.893,80 mm and 1,407.90 mm for nov/01 out/02. The annual streamflow for the same water years were 148,76 mm and 125,62 mm, respectively. The average losses caused by evapotranspiration in the monitored period amounted to 1,513.66 mm. For catchment P, the streamflow observed for the water year of nov/00 out/01 corresponded to 383,35 mm and for nov/01 out/02, to 365,67 mm. The average losses for evapotranspiration in this catchment corresponded to 1276,34 mm. The average temperature observed between set/01 ago/02 was 21,38 ºC and the average relative humidity, 69,67 %. Catchment P presented a higher variation for all the studied parameters used physicist-chemistries to evaluate the quality of the water of the emanation and a lesser resilience. The reduced concentrations of nutrients losses in streamflow of catchment E, coupled with a more stable hydrological responses, reflect better protection from Eucalyptus forest. In the catchment, it was verified that the soil resistance to penetration in the plantation line, between trees, was lower than that observed outside of the plantation line. For catchment P, the evaluation it was made in the cattle track, where the values of soil bulk density and resistance to penetration were higher than those observed outside the cattle track. The suggest visual indicators of catchment health shown correspondence with the observed results. The monitored catchments are part of a broader of catchment environmental and monitoring developed by the Institute of Forest Research and Studies, through the Laboratory of Forest Hydrology of the Department of Forest Sciences of the Escola Superior de Agricultura "Luiz de Queiroz", University of São Paulo (ESALQ/USP).

Areas cultivated with eucalyptus forests have increased in Southern Brazil, and the effects on hydrosedimentological processes are not well known particularly at the watershed scale and in watersheds where land use has been changing. The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model has been applied in a few forested watersheds to evaluate and predict effects of commercial forest cultivation or land use change in hydrological processes, whilst erosion processes has not been the main goal. The present study aimed (i) to evaluate the effects of eucalyptus plantation on hydrosedimentological processes, and to evaluate the efficiency and limitations of the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model to simulate streamflow and sediment yield (daily and monthly) in nested eucalyptus watersheds and in two paired watersheds with eucalyptus and grassland, and (ii) to identify the contribution of the bank channel, unpaved roads and eucalyptus stands sediment-sources for two different size fractions of sediment (< 0.063 mm and 0.063-2 mm) deposited along the drainage network, and suspended sediment collected in the outlet of small watersheds. SWAT was used to evaluate hydrological and erosion processes for two nested forest watersheds (watershed-0.98 km2 and sub-watershed-0.39 km2) and two paired watersheds in Pampa Biome, one with grassland (1.10 km2) and other with eucalyptus (0.83 km2). Measured streamflow and sediment yield at the watersheds outlets was used to evaluate model sensitivity to selected model parameters, and for calibration from 2009 to 2013 for nested watersheds, and from 2009 to 2013 for paired watersheds. Time series plots and standard statistical measures were used to verify model predictions. For nested watersheds, predicted monthly streamflow was very good during calibration for the watershed and for the sub-watershed, respectively. Predicted monthly sediment yield was very good and satisfactory for the watershed, and unsatisfactory for the sub-watershed. Simulations for daily time-scale were satisfactory to predict streamflow and sediment yield for the watershed. For the sub-watershed, predicted streamflow was satisfactory , but sediment yield was unsatisfactory . For paired watersheds, predicted monthly streamflow was good during calibration for the grassland watershed and for the eucalyptus watershed. Predicted monthly sediment yield was satisfactory for the grassland watershed, and very good and satisfactory for eucalyptus watershed. Daily simulations were satisfactory to predict streamflow in both grassland and eucalyptus watersheds. The results suggest that the SWAT model is a promising tool to evaluate hydrological processes in Brazilian watersheds. However, more field work with continuous monitoring is required and empirical equations of SWAT must change to better represent the processes that predominate in each watershed and to represent the hydrological and erosion processes in sub-daily time-scale and, especially, for small watersheds where the time of concentration is less than one day. Sediment-sources was evaluated using geochemical properties, determined by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry and X-ray fluorescence analyses, and the data used to calculate proportional contributions of sediment. Source contributions were determined at points spatially-distributed along the main channel of the watershed. Source determination for in-stream sites was done using samples collected in one spot to evaluate source-contribution of area upstream of this site of interest to indicate how different sources dominate at different downstream locations. To examine whether different size-fractions shared similar origins, two size fractions of both source and suspended samples including fine (<0.063 mm) and coarse (0.063 2 mm) particles were analyzed. Fingerprinting approach indicated particle-size and location of sources within a watershed are major factors affecting the measured contribution of sources for coarse and fine sediments. The closer a sediment sampling site is to a potential source, the more likely this sediment-source will dominate the sampled material, especially for coarse particles. Based on the classification analysis, the relative contribution of each source to eroded sediments was bank channel, i.e. from the stream network. Modeling results and sediment-source identification can provide an improved understanding effect of land use or change in land use on sediment yield in watershed scale, which are useful and may be used as a management tool of natural resources. / Áreas cultivadas com florestas de eucalipto têm aumentado no Sul do Brasil e os efeitos sobre os processos hidrossedimentológicos são pouco conhecidos, especialmente em escala de bacia hidrográfica e para áreas em que ocorreu mudança no uso do solo. O modelo Soil and Water Assesment Tool (SWAT) tem sido utilizado em bacias hidrográficas florestais para avaliar e simular o efeito do cultivo de florestas comerciais ou mudança de uso do solo sobre os processos hidrológicos, mas os processos erosivos não têm sido avaliados. O presente estudo objetivou (i) avaliar os efeitos do plantio de eucalipto sobre os processos hidrossedimentológicos e a eficiência e as limitações do SWAT em simular o escoamento superficial e produção de sedimentos (diários e mensais) em bacias hidrográficas embutidas, ocupadas com eucalipto, e em duas bacias hidrográficas pareadas ocupadas principalmente com eucalipto e com campo natural, e (ii) identificar a contribuição das fontes margem da rede de drenagem, as estradas e os povoamentos de eucalipto na geração de duas diferentes frações de sedimentos (< 0,063 mm e 0,063-2 mm) depositados ao longo da rede de drenagem, e de sedimentos em suspensão coletados no exutório de bacias embutidas. O SWAT foi utilizado para avaliar os processos hidrológicos e de erosão em duas bacias florestais embutidas (bacia-0,94 km2 e sub-bacia-0,39 km2) e em duas bacias hidrográficas pareadas no Bioma Pampa, uma com campo natural (1,10 km2) e outra com eucalipto (0,83 km2). A vazão e a produção de sedimentos medidas nas seções de monitoramento das bacias hidrográficas foram utilizadas para avaliar a sensibilidade dos parâmetros selecionados do modelo e para calibração para as bacias embutidas (2009-2013), e para as bacias pareadas (2009-2013). As séries temporais e os parâmetros estatísticos foram utilizados para avaliar o potencial preditivo do modelo. Para as bacias embutidas, a representação da vazão mensal foi muito boa durante a calibração para a bacia e para a sub-bacia, respectivamente. A representação da produção de sedimentos mensal foi muito boa e satisfatória para a bacia, e insatisfatória para a sub-bacia. As simulações na escala diária foram satisfatórias para a representação da vazão e da produção de sedimentos para a bacia. Para a sub-bacia, a representação da vazão foi satisfatória, mas da produção de sedimentos foi insatisfatória. Para as bacias hidrográficas pareadas, a representação da vazão mensal foi boa durante a calibração para a bacia com pastagem e para a bacia com eucalipto. A representação da produção de sedimentos mensal foi satisfatória para a bacia com pastagem, e muito boa e satisfatória para a bacia com eucalipto. As simulações diárias foram satisfatórias para a vazão em ambas as bacias pareadas. Os resultados sugerem que o modelo SWAT é uma ferramenta promissora para avaliar processos hidrológicos em bacias hidrográficas brasileiras. No entanto, fazem-se necessários mais tempo de monitoramento contínuo das variáveis hidrossedimentológicas e alteração de equações empíricas do SWAT para melhor representar processos erosivos que predominam em cada bacia e para representar os processos hidrológicos e erosivos em escala sub-diária, especialmente para pequenas bacias em que o tempo de concentração é menor do que um dia. As fontes de sedimentos foram avaliadas por meio do uso de propriedades geoquímicas, determinadas por análises de espectrometria de massas com plasma e de fluorescência de raios-X. A contribuição das fontes de sedimentos foi determinada em pontos espacialmente distribuídos ao longo do canal principal da bacia. Amostras de sedimento de um ponto de coleta foram utilizadas para avaliar a contribuição das fontes da área de contribuição à montante desse local de interesse e para indicar o a diferença da contribuição dessas fontes em diferentes localizações à jusante. Para avaliar se as diferentes frações de sedimentos tem origem semelhante, duas frações de tamanho de partículas das fontes e amostras de sedimento fino (< 0,063 mm) e grosso (0,063-2 mm) foram analisadas. A técnica fingerprinting indicou que o tamanho das partículas e localização das fontes dentro da bacia hidrográfica são os principais fatores que afetam a contribuição das fontes para a produção de sedimentos finos e grossos. As fontes mais próximas do local de amostragem são as potenciais fontes de sedimentos, sendo provável que essa fonte de sedimentos será dominante na amostra de sedimentos, principalmente para as frações grossas. Com base na análise de classificação, a contribuição relativa de cada fonte indicou que a principal fonte de sedimentos foi a margem do canal da rede de drenagem. Os resultados da modelagem e identificação das fontes de sedimentos contribuem para uma melhor compreensão do efeito do uso do solo ou da alteração no uso sobre a produção de sedimentos na escala de bacia hidrográfica, que são úteis e podem ser utilizados como ferramenta de gestão dos recursos naturais.