The purpose of this study is to map different understandings of the formalization of the informal financial sector in the developing world. Utilizing a qualitative approach and interview methodology, this study focuses on the case of South Africa and maps different perceptions about the formalization process by operators in the informal economic sector, which are in turn contrasted with the perceptions of experts and policymakers in the field. The issue at hand is a deeper understanding of how and why different groups perceive formalization in different ways. Some of the main findings of this study confirm that there are different understandings of formalization that can be found amongst different groups in South Africa, that the overall positive understanding of formalization efforts are greater than the negative ones, and that formalization efforts are formulated more inclusive than informal operators believe they are. The theoretical contribution of this study is to state that moral arguments play a bigger role in individuals economical decision-making processes than the economy itself shapes individuals' moral behavior. In addition, the findings are of relevance for the design and implementation of financial inclusion policies in the developing world.

Les micro-entreprises domestiques constituent une part importante, si ce n'est dominante, de toutes les économies en développement. C’est aussi le cas au Vietnam où le poids du secteur informel diminue peu malgré une croissance économique rapide. Les quatre chapitres de ce travail posent quatre questions fondamentales pour informer les politiques publiques. Leur originalité est d'adopter le point de vue des entreprises informelles elles-mêmes. Quels bénéfices y a-t-il à rejoindre le secteur formel (chapitre 1)? Quelle est la vulnérabilité de ces unités de production, dont le budget est souvent confondu avec celui du ménages, aux chocs de santé (chapitre 2) ? L’assurance santé permet-elle de réduire efficacement cette vulnérabilité (chapitre 3) ? Enfin, quelle est l’importance du mode de gestion de ces micro-entreprises (chapitre 4) ? Tous les chapitres s’appuient en premier lieu sur des données d’enquêtes quantitatives, de première ou seconde main. L’approche quantitative est complétée par des enquêtes qualitatives. Les résultats dressent le portrait d’un secteur dynamique, dont la persistance ne peut être ignorée, et suggèrent des mécanismes pour améliorer la productivité de ces entreprises qui opèrent dans des conditions largement précaires. / This PhD dissertation is built around four main chapters. Their topic shall sound familiar to policy makers, and to all empirical economists working on microenterprises, as they quesion the common mottos to deal with the informal sector: “formalize them”, “protect them”, and “train them”. Little of these recommendations rely on actual evidence, in particular regarding their effects for the firms themselves. Chapter one starts by questioning the relevance of formalization: what exactly do these production units have to gain from registration? The second chapter investigates the vulnerability of microenterprises to health problems: how much do they suffer from the consequences of health shocks within the household? The third chapter deals with the complementary question of the protection mechanisms, and questions the mitigating potential of health insurance. The fourth chapter finally deals with their managerial capital: do the business skills that are considered standard among larger firms have any meaning for informal micro enterprises?

Sports organizations formed a significant part of the non-profit sector, not only in the Czech Republic. They are being overlooked of the academic world, however they offer interesting insights on organizational change. Overall, we can observe many forms of sports non-profit organizations in civil society, which differ in degree of proffesionalization, degree of formalization and the values they hold. This case study reveals the problems of local non-profit sports organization, which is undergoing a gradual change. This change is related to the development of the organization, after gradual change of values and objectives, the organization must now adapt corresponding structure. This study contains the recommendations specifically for this organization, however they can be used by other entities as well.

In previous work, we have investigated privacy-preserving publishing of Description Logic (DL) ontologies in a setting where the knowledge about individuals to be published is an EL instance store, and both the privacy policy and the possible background knowledge of an attacker are represented by concepts of the DL EL. We have introduced the notions of compliance of a concept with a policy and of safety of a concept for a policy, and have shown how, in the context mentioned above, optimal compliant (safe) generalizations of a given EL concept can be computed. In the present paper, we consider a modified setting where we assume that the background knowledge of the attacker is given by a DL different from the one in which the knowledge to be published and the safety policies are formulated. In particular, we investigate the situations where the attacker’s knowledge is given by an FL0 or an FLE concept. In both cases, we show how optimal safe generalizations can be computed. Whereas the complexity of this computation is the same (ExpTime) as in our previous results for the case of FL0, it turns out to be actually lower (polynomial) for the more expressive DL FLE.

High-value, lootable natural resources drive, finance and sustain armed conflicts around the world. At the same time, these resources are crucial for livelihoods through artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) in the very same contexts. Yet, little is known regarding how these resources should be managed in the wake of conflict to contribute to peacebuilding and prevent conflict recurrence. Drawing on the environmental peacebuilding and informal economies literature, this study argues that ASM formalization improves the quality and sustainability of livelihoods by empowering ASM communities. Using the method of structured focused comparison, the hypothesis is tested on two mining municipalities in Antioquia, Colombia. Data was gathered through interviews and secondary sources. The main finding is that while ASM formalization under certain conditions can contributeto sustainable livelihoods, this is only partly through community empowerment. Furthermore, the practice remains inaccessible to most artisanal and small-scale miners and can make them dependent on the goodwill of large-scale multinational mining companies. Thereby it ends up marginalizing many of the people it is meant to benefit.

<p>This thesis gives a partial answer to the question: “Can type systems detect modeling errors in scientific computing, particularly for inverse problems derived from physical models?” by considering, in detail, the major aspects of inverse problems in Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). We define a type-system that can capture all correctness properties for MRI inverse problems, including many properties that are not captured with current type-systems, e.g., frames of reference. We implemented a type-system in the Haskell language that can capture the errors arising in translating a mathe- matical model into a linear or nonlinear system, or alternatively into an objective function. Most models are (or can be approximated by) linear transformations, and we demonstrate the feasibility of capturing their correctness at the type level using what is arguably the most difficult case, the (discrete) Fourier transformation (DFT). By this, we mean that we are able to catch, at compile time, all known errors in ap- plying the DFT. The first part of this thesis describes the Haskell implementation of vector size, physical units, frame of reference, and so on required in the mathemat- ical modelling of inverse problems without regularization. To practically solve most inverse problems, especially those including noisy data or ill-conditioned systems, one must use regularization. The second part of this thesis addresses the question of defining new regularizers and identifying existing regularizers the correctness of which (in our estimation) can be formally verified at the type level. We describe such Bayesian regularization schemes based on probability theory, and describe a novel simple regularizer of this type. We leave as future work the formalization of such regularizers.</p> / Master of Science (MSc)

El presente artículo jurídico comprende como objetivo el argumentar la inclusión de unipersonalidad en las Sociedades por Acciones Cerrada Simplificada para fomentar la formalización de los micro, pequeños y medianos empresarios, debido a que la informalidad es un problema que sigue en crecimiento en nuestra sociedad, lo que ha originado que el estado peruano implemente diferentes métodos para reducir sus índices en crecimiento de informalidad; razón por lo cual en ésta investigación utilizando la metodología mixta que reúne al método cualitativo y cuantitativo, sirviéndose de la técnica de la observación, el análisis documental y de los instrumentos como la guía de observación y la guía de análisis documental, los cuales han sido utilizados para poder argumentar la importancia de incluir la unipersonalidad en este modelo empresarial. Respecto a los resultados podemos determinar que sí existe esa necesidad de incluir la unipersonalidad en nuestro ordenamiento jurídico a través de la Sociedades por Acciones Cerradas Simplificada con la finalidad de fomentar la formalización de los micro, pequeños y medianos empresarios. / The objective of this legal article is to argue for the inclusion of sole proprietorship in Simplified Closed Share Companies to promote the formalization of micro, small and medium-sized entrepreneurs, because informality is a problem that continues to grow in our society and State. has tried to implement different methods to reduce its growth rates, which is why using the mixed methodology that brings together the qualitative and quantitative method, using the technique of observation, documentary analysis and instruments such as the observation guide and the documentary analysis guide, are used to argue the importance to include unipersonality in this business model. Regarding the results, we can determine that there is a need to include sole proprietorship in our legal system through Simplified Closed Share Companies with the purpose of promoting the formalization of micro, small and medium-sized entrepreneurs.

Cette étude de cas, composée de trois articles, examine les diverses sources d’explication de l’écart salarial selon le genre chez les professeurs d’une grande université de recherche canadienne. Le premier article analyse les écarts selon le genre sur les primes “de marché” à partir de données d’un sondage réalisé auprès des professeurs en 2002. Une analyse des correspondances donne une solution à deux facteurs dans laquelle le second facteur oppose clairement les professeurs qui ont reçu une prime à ceux qui n’en n’ont pas reçue. Le genre est fortement associé à ce facteur, la catégorie “femme” se retrouvant du côté de l’axe associé à l’absence de primes de marché. Les résultats de la régression logistique confirment que le secteur d’activité, la fréquence des contrats de recherche, la valorisation du salaire ainsi que le rang combiné à l’ancienneté sont reliés à la présence de primes de marché, tel que proposé par les hypothèses. Toutefois, même après avoir contrôlé pour ces relations, les femmes sont toujours près de trois fois moins susceptibles de s’être vu attribuer des primes de marché que leurs homologues masculins. Dans l’ensemble, les résultats suggèrent que dans un contexte où les salaires sont déterminés par convention collective, la réindividualisation du processus de détermination des salaires — en particulier le versement de primes de marché aux professeurs d’université — peut favoriser la réapparition d’écarts de salaire selon le genre. Le second article est réalisé à partir de données administratives portant sur les années 1997 à 2006. Les contributions respectives de quatre composantes de la rémunération à l’écart salarial selon le genre y sont analysées, soit le salaire de base, l’accès au rang de professeur titulaire, l’accès aux primes de marché et chaires de recherche du Canada, de même que les montants reçus. Les composantes varient quant à leur degré de formalisation. Ceci permet de tester l’hypothèse selon laquelle l’ampleur de l’écart salarial selon le genre varie en fonction du degré de formalisation des composantes salariales. Nous déterminons également dans quelle mesure l’écart selon le genre sur les diverses composantes de la rémunération varie en fonction de la représentation relative des femmes professeurs au sein des unités. Les résultats démontrent l’existence de variations dans l’ampleur des différences selon le genre en fonction du degré de formalisation des pratiques de rémunération. Qui plus est, après contrôles, la rémunération est plus faible dans les unités où les femmes sont fortement représentées. Le dernier article examine les mécanismes pouvant mener à un écart selon le genre en ce qui a trait à l’accès aux primes de marché chez les professeurs de l’institution. Les processus d’attribution de ces suppléments salariaux sont examinés à partir d’entretiens réalisés avec 17 administrateurs à tous les niveaux hiérarchiques de l’institution et dans une diversité d’unités académiques. Les résultats suggèrent que les différences selon le genre pourraient être liées à des caractéristiques spécifiques du processus d’attribution et à une distribution inégale des primes aux unités à forte représentation féminine. De façon générale, les résultats démontrent que l’écart de rémunération selon le genre chez les professeurs de cette université n’est pas totalement expliqué par des différences dans les caractéristiques individuelles des hommes et femmes. L’analyse révèle que l’écart réside dans des différences selon le genre en ce qui a trait à l’accès aux primes de marché et aux chaires de recherches du Canada et, dans une moindre mesure, au rang de professeur titulaire. Aucune différence n’est observée sur le salaire de base et le montant des primes salariales reçues, que celles-ci soient dites de “marché” ou associées à une chaire de recherche du Canada. Qui plus est, on constate que la rémunération est plus faible dans les unités où les femmes sont le mieux représentées. L’accès différencié selon le genre aux primes de marché qui est observé pourrait être lié à certains processus organisationnels qui limitent les probabilités d’octrois à des femmes. Les femmes pourraient être particulièrement désavantagées dans ce système d’octroi, pour plusieurs raisons. L’existence de différences selon le genre en ce qui a trait aux dispositions ou habiletés des individus à négocier leur salaire est évoquée et supposée par certains administrateurs. Un accès limité aux informations concernant la politique de primes pourrait réduire la probabilité que des femmes tentent d’obtenir ces suppléments salariaux. Les directeurs d’unités, qui sont en majorité des hommes, pourraient être biaisées en faveur des professeurs masculins dans leurs évaluations s’ils tendent à favoriser ceux qui leurs ressemblent. Il est également possible que les directeurs d’unités où les femmes sont les mieux représentées n’aient pas reçu d’information sur les primes de marché ou que des traditions disciplinaires les aient rendu réticents à demander des primes. / This case study examines the various sources of explanation of the gender pay gap among professors at a large Canadian research university. It comprises three articles. The first article analyzes gender differences in “market supplements” using data from a survey of professors conducted in 2000. The correspondence analysis produces a two-factor solution in which the second axis clearly opposes faculty who receive market supplement to those who do not. Gender is strongly related to this factor, with the female category on the side of the axis associated with the absence of market supplement. The results of the logistic regression confirm that field of specialization, frequency of external research contracts, faculty members’ values and attitudes towards remuneration and seniority within rank are all related to the award of market supplements, as hypothesized. However, women were still almost three times less likely than men to have been awarded market supplements after controlling for these relationships. Overall, the results suggest that within a collective bargaining context, reindividualization of the pay determination process — notably, the payment of market supplements to faculty — may reopen pay differences by gender. The second article uses administrative data for years 1997 to 2006. We estimate the respective contributions to the gender pay gap of four pay components: base pay, promotion to full professor, access to market supplements and Canada research chairs as well as the amounts received. These are characterized by various levels of formalization. This allows testing the hypothesis that the magnitude of gender differences in pay varies with the extent of formalization of pay components. We also determine how gender differences on each pay component vary according to the relative representation of female faculty members within units. We find some evidence that the magnitude of gender differences varies with the degree of formalization in remuneration practices. We also find that, other things being equal, pay is lower in units with a high proportion of females. The last article examines the mechanisms that may lead to gender differences in access to ‘market supplements’ among professors. The process of awarding pay in excess for the amounts provided for in a collective agreement are examined based on interviews with 17 administrators at all hierarchical levels and in various academic units. Results suggest that gender differences in the likelihood of receiving an award may be related to specific features of the award process and to an unequal distribution of awards to units with strong female representation. Overall, the results show that the gender pay gap among professors at this university is not entirely accounted for by differences in the individual characteristics of male and female professors. The analysis reveals that the pay gap resides in gender differences in access to market supplements and Canada research chairs (CRCs) and, to a lesser extent, to the full professor rank. No difference is found on base pay or on the amounts of pay supplements received, whether they are “market” premiums or supplements associated to a CRC. Furthermore, pay tends to be lower in units where female representation is highest. The observed gender differences in access to market supplements could be due to organizational processes that reduce the likelihood of awards to women. There are several reasons why female faculty members are particularly disadvantaged in this award system. Gender differences in the propensity or ability to negotiate are alleged (and assumed) by some of those negotiating. More limited access to information about supplements reduces the likelihood that women will pursue them. Chairpersons, who are mostly males, may allow gender bias to influence their evaluations of faculty members, perhaps because they tend to favor others like themselves. It may also be that chairpersons from the units where women are better represented do not have access to information about market supplements or that disciplinary traditions make them reluctant to request them.

Les pays du Maghreb (Tunisie, Algérie, Maroc) ont engagé de profondes réformes structurelles sur les plans politique et économique. Leurs équilibres macroéconomiques sont à peu près maîtrisés et ils bénéficient d’une multiplication de partenariats avec l'UE et de programmes d'aides internationales. Pour autant, ces pays n'arrivent pas à atteindre un niveau soutenu de croissance leur permettant de se développer. En se basant sur un cadre théorique centré sur l’interrelation entre les mécanismes de gouvernance publique et privée, cette recherche doctorale se propose de comprendre les raisons du blocage de développement dans les pays du Maghreb.A partir d’une définition stricte de la gouvernance et au moyen de la base de données « Profils Institutionnels » du MINEFI, pour les années 2001 et 2009, nous construisons 31 variables institutionnelles de gouvernance publique et privée pour 51 pays développés et en développement. Nous examinons ainsi la dynamique des Systèmes Nationaux de Gouvernance des pays du Maghreb comparée à celle d’autres pays, notamment à celle des Pays de l’Europe Centrale et Orientale (PECO).L’exploitation des données, moyennant des ACP et des régressions linéaires, souligne l’importance des institutions de gouvernance qui se rapportent aux niveaux de formalisation des règles et qui expliquent le développement ou le blocage des pays. Nos résultats démontrent également, en comparaison avec les PECO, que le blocage de la transition des pays du Maghreb est expliqué, dans une large mesure, par leur faible niveau de formalisation des règles souligné par la quasi-stagnation de l’évolution de cette formalisation entre 2001 et 2009. Les niveaux des libertés accordées aux citoyens permettent aussi d’expliquer les différences de développement entre les pays. / Maghreb countries (Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco) have undertaken substantial structural reforms on the political and economical level. Their macro-economical equilibrium is almost under control and they benefit from increased E.U. partnerships coupled with international aid programs. However, these countries have failed to reach a sustained growth level that would allow them to develop. Based on a theoretical framework centered on the interrelationship between mechanisms of public and private governance, this doctoral research aims at understanding the reasons behind the Maghreb countries’ development block.From a strict definition of governance and using the MINEFI "Institutional Profiles" database, for the years 2001 and 2009, we built 31 variables of institutional, public and private, governance for 51 developed and developing countries. Dynamics of the National Systems of Governance of the Maghreb countries were examined and compared to that of other countries, particularly to that of Central and Eastern Europe countries.The use of data factor analysis and linear regressions has highlighted the importance of governance institutions that are related to the levels of formalization of rules, and that explain the development or its hiatus in these countries. Our results also showed, in comparison with the Central and Eastern Europe countries, that the transition of the Maghreb countries is explained largely by their low level of formalization of rules and by their almost stagnation between 2001 and 2009. The different levels of freedoms granted to citizens also helped explaining the differences in development between countries.

Este estudo analisa a formalização dos empreendimentos industriais de confecção na cidade de Caruaru. A região do Polo de Confecções do Agreste Pernambucano é composta por diversos municípios, entre eles Caruaru, com uma significativa produção de artigos de vestuário. Esse aglomerado produtivo começou a se formar ainda na década de 1950 e, desde a origem, a maior parte das atividades é desenvolvida de maneira informal. Contudo, a partir de 1990 o aglomerado vem passando por processos crescentes de modernização, industrialização e uma imbricação cada vez maior com a dinâmica capitalista, atraindo a ação do Estado e do capital. Uma das principais transformações é a regularização fiscal das unidades produtivas. Frente a esta realidade nossa problemática se volta para o processo de formalização da indústria: oficinas, que iniciaram suas atividades predominantemente em domicílios, com mão de obra familiar e informal, e se tornaram fábricas de confecção. O problema de pesquisa parte do pressuposto de que a informalidade histórica e dominante, tanto das unidades produtivas como das relações de trabalho, está sendo reconfigurada pelo processo de formalização. A análise mobiliza a discussão conceitual sobre informalidade, flexibilização e precariedade. Sendo a flexibilização do processo produtivo e das relações de trabalho uma condição do capitalismo flexível, sendo o trabalho familiar, informal e precário uma característica histórica e constitutiva desta região, existindo o crescente movimento de imbricação com a dinâmica capitalista de cujos processos de formalização são uma expressão, perguntamos: qual o significado da formalização? A partir da formalização dos empreendimentos, o que está se constituindo como (novo) padrão em termos de relações de trabalho? O debate teórico central gravita em torno do conceito de processos de informalização, de Maria Cristina Cacciamali (2000, 2011), que servem de terreno para a discussão acerca da nova informalidade, a qual tem sido desenvolvida, principalmente, por Angela Maria Carneiro Araújo (2011), Maria da Graça Druck (2011a) e Roberto Véras de Oliveira (2011 a/b). A base metodológica está composta por entrevistas semiestruturadas, observação dos locais de produção e comercialização e coleta de dados em fontes secundárias. A partir da análise do processo de formalização dos empreendimentos industriais, acompanhada da retomada das transformações por que tem passado este aglomerado produtivo, concluímos que está se consolidando um padrão de formalização: a formalização institucional que engendra relações de trabalho informais. Nesse sentido, a informalidade tem sido capaz de se preservar, reproduzir, e, sobretudo, ser ressignificada pela ação dos empresários e por meio dos novos métodos de gestão empresarial, tais como os processos de terceirização e subcontratação da produção que, no contexto do Polo, encontram uma atmosfera favorável e fértil, devido à “naturalização” do trabalho informal. / This study analyzes the formalization of manufacturing industrial enterprises in the city of Caruaru. The region of Agreste Pernambucanoé's Clothing Complex is composed of several municipalities, including Caruaru, with a significant production of clothing articles. This productive cluster was formed during the 1950s, and its activities have been developing informally from the outset. However, since 1990, it has been undergoing increasing processes of modernization, industrialization and a growing overlap with the capitalist dynamic, attracting the action of the state and of the capital. One of the main changes is the tax regularization of productive plants. Considering this reality, we observe the industry formalization process: workshops which began operations predominantly in households with family and informal labor force and became confection factories. The research problem considers that historical and dominant informality, both of production units as of labor relations, is being reconfigured by the formalization process. The analysis mobilizes the conceptual discussion of informality, flexibility and precariousness. Considering that the flexibility of the production process and working relations has a current flexible capitalism paradigm, that the familiar, informal and precarious labor force is a historical and constitutional status of this region and that there is a growing movement of overlap with the capitalist dynamics whose formalization processes are an expression, we ask: what is the meaning of formalization? From the formalization of enterprises, that is constituted as (new) standard in terms of labor relations? The central theoretical debate revolves around the concept of informal processes, by Maria Cristina Cacciamali (2000, 2011), which serve as ground for the discussion of new informality, which has been developed mainly by Angela Maria Carneiro Araújo (2011), Maria da Graça Druck (2011a) and Roberto Véras de Oliveira (2011/b). The methodological base is composed of semi-structured interviews, observation of production and dealing sites and data collection on secondary sources. From the analysis of the process of industrial enterprises formalization and with the resumption of transformations that this production cluster has passed through, we considerer that a pattern of formalization is consolidating: institutional formalization that engenders informal labor relations. In this sense, informality has been able to preserve, reproduce, and, above all, be re-signified by the action of entrepreneurs and through new methods of business management, such as business process outsourcing and subcontracting production in the context of the Complex, and it also finds a favorable and fertile atmosphere due to the "naturalization" of informal work.