Vineyard management practices are known to affect fruit composition and resultant wines, in part, by altering fruit volatiles. Methods currently used to evaluate the impact of vineyard practices on grape/wine composition include measuring physico-chemistry indices and performing wine sensory analyses. These activities are both time-consuming and destructive. Two electronic nose (ENose) systems: a hand-held conducting polymer-based and a portable surface acoustic wave-based systems were investigated as grape monitoring tools. Vineyard treatments included the effect of canopy side (East vs. West and North vs. South), cluster thinning (unthinned, 1 cluster/shoot, and 1 & 2 cluster/shoot) and ethanol spray (5% v/v) on Cabernet franc, Merlot and both varieties respectively. ENose data were obtained in the field (over two growing seasons for canopy side and in 2008 for cluster thinning and ethanol spray) and laboratory (2007 for canopy side), across different sampling dates and compared with nine-grape/eight-wine chemistry assays, GC/MS (cluster thinning) and wine aroma sensory evaluations (triangular difference testing). ENose results demonstrated 100% significant differences between all Cabernet franc and Merlot treatments. Grape/wine chemistry indices, for both Cabernet franc and Merlot, did not differ among treatments (except ethanol treatment) across sampling dates or growing seasons and vineyard management practices. Wine aroma sensory evaluations demonstrated only limited differences (3 out of 8 comparisons: East vs. West, 1 cluster/shoot vs. 1 & 2 clusters/shoot and 1 cluster/shoot and 1 & 2 clusters/shoot). The high level of discrimination by ENose systems may provide opportunities to enhance the understanding of vineyard management activities. / Master of Science in Life Sciences

Vineyard management practices are known to affect fruit composition and resultant wines, in part, by altering fruit volatiles. Methods currently used to evaluate the impact of vineyard practices on grape/wine composition include measuring physico-chemistry indices and performing wine sensory analyses. These activities are both time-consuming and destructive. Two electronic nose (ENose) systems: a hand-held conducting polymer-based and a portable surface acoustic wave-based systems were investigated as grape monitoring tools. Vineyard treatments included the effect of canopy side (East vs. West and North vs. South), cluster thinning (unthinned, 1 cluster/shoot, and 1 & 2 cluster/shoot) and ethanol spray (5% v/v) on Cabernet franc, Merlot and both varieties respectively. ENose data were obtained in the field (over two growing seasons for canopy side and in 2008 for cluster thinning and ethanol spray) and laboratory (2007 for canopy side), across different sampling dates and compared with nine-grape/eight-wine chemistry assays, GC/MS (cluster thinning) and wine aroma sensory evaluations (triangular difference testing). ENose results demonstrated 100% significant differences between all Cabernet franc and Merlot treatments. Grape/wine chemistry indices, for both Cabernet franc and Merlot, did not differ among treatments (except ethanol treatment) across sampling dates or growing seasons and vineyard management practices. Wine aroma sensory evaluations demonstrated only limited differences (3 out of 8 comparisons: East vs. West, 1 cluster/shoot vs. 1 & 2 clusters/shoot and 1 cluster/shoot and 1 & 2 clusters/shoot). The high level of discrimination by ENose systems may provide opportunities to enhance the understanding of vineyard management activities. / Master of Science

Depuis 1939, une partie des pays de l'Afrique de l'Ouest a pour monnaie le Franc CFA d'Afrique de l'Ouest. Ces pays constituent, de fait, une zone monétaire. La dévaluation du CFA de 1994 marque le passage d'une convertibilité automatique à une convertibilité partielle. Il est alors légitime de s'interroger sur l'optimalité de cette zone monétaire surtout dans un contexte où la Zone Euro connaît elle même des difficultés.Elle a pour ambition de s'interroger sur l'optimalité de la zone monétaire l'Union Economique et Monétaire Ouest-Africaine. L'étude a donc pour objectif d'identifier si cette zone monétaire est une Zone Monétaire Optimale, (ZMO) au sens de MUNDELL (1961). L'objet d'étude soulevé ici portera plus particulièrement sur l'analyse des critères de faisabilité d'une ZMO et le passage à des critères de soutenabilité. Les critères de premier rang d'une ZMO, déterminés par les auteurs précurseurs de littérature sur la question dans les années 1960 et 1970, constitués principalement par les apports de MUNDELL, (1961).Notre travail propose de ne pas se limiter à la définition donnée par MUNDELL, même si cette théorie s'applique à juste titre pour des pays candidats à l'adhésion. Dans ce cas la Loi du Prix Unique permet de caractériser la fixité du taux de change comme étant une condition nécessaire de premier rang. Cette condition de premier ordre est non suffisante pour justifier de la soutenabilité et durabilité d'une zone. La fixité des monnaies est la deuxième condition retenue. La monnaie unique devient alors un choix rationnel qui se justifie par les avantages qu'elle procure aux pays qui l'adoptent. / Ome of the West African countries have adopted the CFA Franc (Franc of African Financial Communities) as their currency in 1939. These countries hence form a monetary zone. The devaluation of the French CFA in 1994 marked the passage from an automatic convertibility to a partial convertibility. It seems legitimate to consider the optimality of the West-African currency area - especially in a context where the Euro zone itself faces difficulties.This thesis aims to identify whether this area is indeed an optimal currency area as defined by MUNDELL in 1961. The object of study raised here will focus more particularly on the analysis of the feasibility of an OCA (Optimum currency area) and on the passage to sustainability criteria. The primary criteria of an OCA -- as determined by the founding authors in the literature of the 1960s and 1970s on the issue, MUNDELL being the main contributor (1961). This study however does not restrict itself solely to the definition given by MUNDELL, even though his theory applies rightly to countries which are candidates to entry into the union. In this case, the Law of one Price (Loop) can characterize the fixity of the exchange rate as a primary necessary condition. This proviso however is not sufficient to justify the sustainability and durability of an area. In case this latter condition is not met, the other condition is the fixity of currencies. The unique currency then becomes a rational choice which is justified by the advantages it procures countries which adopt it.

O fraturamento hidráulico é uma das técnicas de estimulação mais utilizadas pela indústria petrolífera. Esta técnica permite o aumento de produtividade de poços com baixo custo. Essa técnica consiste em induzir a propagação de fissuras nas rochas por meio de uma pressão externa. Assim, modelos para a simulação da propagação de fissuras em tais condições tornam-se de grande importância. O presente trabalho apresenta uma contribuição ao estudo da propagação de fissuras durante o fraturamento hidráulico. Um modelo numérico baseado no Método dos Elementos Finitos será apresentado. Teorias da mecânica da fratura elástico linear são aplicadas e a propagação de fissuras durante o faturamento hidráulico é modelada, tendo como processador das análises a ferramenta numérica FRANC 2D. Os resultados obtidos pelo modelo numérico são comparados com respostas apresentadas na literatura. Boa concordância é observada entre os resultados. Em especial, para os valores da pressão de quebra e o raio de reorientação. / Fracking is one of the most used stimulation techniques by the oil and gas industry. This technique allows the increase of productivity of wells with low cost. Consists in inducing the propagation of cracks in the rocks by means of an external pressure. Thus, models for simulating the propagation of cracks in such conditions become of great importance. This work presents a contribution to the study of the propagation of cracks during the fracking. A numerical model based on the Finite Element Method will be presented. Theories of linear elastic fracture mechanics are applied and the propagation of cracks during hydraulic billing is modeled, with the FRANC 2D numerical tool as the analysis processor. The results obtained by the numerical model are compared with answers presented in the literature. Good agreement is observed among the results. In particular, for the values of the breakdown pressure and the reorientation radius.

Si la littérature du biais inflationniste de la Nouvelle École Classique, au travers des concepts decrédibilité et de transparence, a conduit à l'indépendance des Banques centrales, sa critique par laNouvelle École Keynésienne l'a réduit à une indépendance instrumentale et a mis en exergue le rôlede sa gouvernance, de l'importance de sa relation avec la sphère politique pour la légitimité de sonaction, ainsi que le rôle essentiel des Conseils de politique monétaire (CPM).Aussi bien en théorie que dans les faits, ce cadre institutionnel qui reflète la gouvernance montre uneBanque centrale non pas séparée du politique mais plutôt en relation avec celui-ci. Dans la mesure oùles décisions de politique monétaire sont prises par un CPM, la gouvernance concerne également sonorganisation et les procédures d’élaboration de la décision.L’objectif de cette thèse est d’analyser à la lumière de ses développements récents, la gouvernance àla BCEAO et à la BEAC qui sont les Banques centrales couvrant les deux unions monétaires de lazone franc, à savoir l’UEMOA pour la première et la CEMAC pour la seconde. Cette thèse a aussipour objectif de montrer que la pérennisation de ces deux unions monétaires passe par une meilleuregouvernance et la nécessité d’un fédéralisme budgétaire en leur sein impliquant donc une plus forteunion politique. Toutefois, nous soulignons les obstacles rendant très difficile la réalisation de cetteultime étape de l’intégration. / If the literature of the inflationary bias of the New Classical School, through the concepts of credibilityand transparency, led to the independence of Central Banks, its review by the New Keynesian Schoolreduced it to an instrumental independence and has highlight the role of its governance, of theimportance of its relationship with politicians for the legitimacy of its action and the essential role of theCouncils of monetary policy.In theory and in practice, this institutional framework that reflects governance shows a Central Bank(MPC) not separated from politics but rather in connection therewith. Insofar the monetary policydecisions, the governance, and procedures for the preparation of the decision are taken by a CPM.The objective of this thesis is to analyze in the light of recent developments, governance at theBCEAO and the BEAC which are the central banks covering two monetary unions from franc zonenamely WAEMU and CAEMC. This thesis also aims to show that the sustainability of these twomonetary unions through the benefits might enjoy better governance and the need for fiscal federalismwithin them thus implying a stronger political union. However, we highlight the barriers embarrassingthis final stage of integration.

O fraturamento hidráulico é uma das técnicas de estimulação mais utilizadas pela indústria petrolífera. Esta técnica permite o aumento de produtividade de poços com baixo custo. Essa técnica consiste em induzir a propagação de fissuras nas rochas por meio de uma pressão externa. Assim, modelos para a simulação da propagação de fissuras em tais condições tornam-se de grande importância. O presente trabalho apresenta uma contribuição ao estudo da propagação de fissuras durante o fraturamento hidráulico. Um modelo numérico baseado no Método dos Elementos Finitos será apresentado. Teorias da mecânica da fratura elástico linear são aplicadas e a propagação de fissuras durante o faturamento hidráulico é modelada, tendo como processador das análises a ferramenta numérica FRANC 2D. Os resultados obtidos pelo modelo numérico são comparados com respostas apresentadas na literatura. Boa concordância é observada entre os resultados. Em especial, para os valores da pressão de quebra e o raio de reorientação. / Fracking is one of the most used stimulation techniques by the oil and gas industry. This technique allows the increase of productivity of wells with low cost. Consists in inducing the propagation of cracks in the rocks by means of an external pressure. Thus, models for simulating the propagation of cracks in such conditions become of great importance. This work presents a contribution to the study of the propagation of cracks during the fracking. A numerical model based on the Finite Element Method will be presented. Theories of linear elastic fracture mechanics are applied and the propagation of cracks during hydraulic billing is modeled, with the FRANC 2D numerical tool as the analysis processor. The results obtained by the numerical model are compared with answers presented in the literature. Good agreement is observed among the results. In particular, for the values of the breakdown pressure and the reorientation radius.

Cette recherche traite de la vulnérabilité des paysans cotonniers au Burkina Faso face aux évolutions du marché et aux changements institutionnels de la filière. En effet, la filière coton a subi depuis une dizaine d'années une crise généralisée, dont la chute des prix fut le caractère le plus visible. Cette crise sans précédent est symptomatique du démantèlement des filières d'exportation, mises en place progressivement depuis la période coloniale, dans le cadre des politiques d'ajustement structurel. La filière coton étant reconnue comme un succès historique de développement agricole, ses difficultés actuelles sont donc un bon révélateur de l'impact du retrait des États et de la coopération internationale dans le secteur de l'agriculture. Les résultats s'appuient sur le traitement d'enquêtes par questionnaire menées auprès de paysans dans l'Est du Burkina Faso et sur la réalisation d'entretiens semi-directifs auprès des acteurs de la filière. Ces analyses de terrains sont ensuite confrontées aux stratégies de sortie de crise proposées par les sociétés cotonnières, l'Union des Producteurs de Coton Burkinabé et l'État. Cette échelle d'analyse est intégrée dans une étude à différentes échelles, de la région, au marché global en passant par l'État. Cette approche multi-scalaire originale est la seule capable de mettre en relation efficacement les conclusions fondées sur niveau unique d'analyse. Les conclusions montrent que le devenir de la filière coton et la stabilité des régions concernées dépendent de l'action des producteurs, des États et de la coopération internationale en faveur de l'agriculture familiale. Enfin, ce travail souligne l'intérêt de l'approche géographique qui intègre l'emboîtement des échelles en tant qu'élément majeur de la pérennité des filières agricoles dans les pays en voie de développement. / The aim of this Phd is to understand the vulnerability of Burkina Faso’s cotton farmers confronted to the current market and institutional changes in this economic sector. Indeed, the cotton industry has gone through a generalized crisis over the last decade – the fall in prices being the most tangible outward sign. Such an unprecedented crisis is symptomatic of the dismantling of export channels that have been introduced ever since the colonial period, under the pressure of structural adjustment policies. The cotton industry being generally acknowledged as a historical success of agricultural development, its current difficulties testify to the direct consequences of the withdrawal of both States and international cooperation from the agricultural sector. Results are based on the treatment of questionnaire surveys conducted among farmers in Eastern Burkina Faso and on half-directed interviews with all the industry participants. These field surveys are then contrasted with the strategies propounded by the cotton companies, the National Union of Burkinabe Cotton Producers and the government itself to get out of the crisis. This scale of analysis is integrated, through a multi-leveled study of the region, to the global market through the state. This multi-scalar, original approach is the only one likely to draw a productive connection between the several approaches based on a single level of analysis. Conclusions establish that the future of the cotton sector, and the stability of the area, depend on the joint actions of producers, State and international cooperation to support family farming. Finally, this study also demonstrates the interest of a geographical approach incorporating different scales of analysis as a major element of the sustainability of agricultural industries in developing countries.

Cotutelle. / Cette thèse se greffe sur la branche de l'histoire contemporaine de l'Afrique occidentale francophone. Son point d'encrage est la thématique du franc CFA (Franc de la communauté française d'Afrique pour l'Afrique de l'Ouest, et Franc de la coopération française d'Afrique pour l'Afrique centrale) et le projet de développement économique et social depuis 1960. La recherche émane d'une approche pluridisciplinaire. Elle analyse les questions de politique commerciale et économique sans cesse débattues à l'échelle internationale. La problématique porte sur le rôle de la monnaie dans les relations internationales : le cas du franc CFA entre la France et ses anciennes colonies d'Afrique subsaharienne. En effet, l'indépendance suppose avant tout pour un pays, une souveraineté politique, économique et sociale. Le franc CFA est un sujet d'actualité et qui passionne plus d'un. En ce XXIe siècle, le franc CFA demeure la seule monnaie coloniale encore utilisée par quatorze pays dont douze relèvent des anciennes colonies françaises. Il s'agit du Bénin, du Burkina-Faso, du Centrafrique, de la Côte d'Ivoire, du Congo, du Gabon, du Mali, du Niger, du Sénégal, du Tchad et du Togo. La Guinée Équatoriale (hispanique) et la Guinée-Bissau (lusophone) vont rejoindre ces pays francophones respectivement en 1984 et 1997. Face aux enjeux de développement du monde contemporain, les pays utilisateurs du franc CFA se trouvent être parmi les bons derniers élèves de cette classe. Hormis le taux de paupérisation élevé, les populations de cet espace sont sujettes aux fléaux liés à l'insécurité (dans le Sahel et le golfe de Guinée par exemple) et à l'émigration. Notre démarche nous a permis de mieux appréhender le fonctionnement de cette monnaie afin de comprendre son impact sur le quotidien de ses utilisateurs. / This thesis is part of the contemporary history of French-speaking West Africa. Its anchor point is the theme of the CFA franc (Franc of the French community of Africa for West Africa, and Franc of the French cooperation of Africa for Central Africa) and the economic and social development project since 1960. The research is based on a multidisciplinary approach. It analyses the trade and economic policy issues that are constantly being debated at international level. The research focuses on the role of money in international relations: the case of the CFA franc between France and its former colonies in sub-Saharan Africa. For a country, independence means, above all, political, economic and social sovereignty. The CFA franc is a highly topical issue, and one that fascinates many people. In the 21st century, the CFA franc remains the only colonial currency still used by fourteen countries, twelve of which are former French colonies. These are Benin, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Chad, Côte d'Ivoire, Congo, Gabon, Mali, Niger, Senegal and Togo. Equatorial Guinea (Spanish-speaking) and Guinea-Bissau (Portuguese-speaking) joined these French-speaking countries in 1984 and 1997 respectively. Faced with the development challenges of today's world, the countries that use the CFA franc are among the bottom of the class. Apart from the high rate of impoverishment, the populations of these countries are subject to the scourges of insecurity (in the Sahel and the Gulf of Guinea, for example) and emigration. Our approach has enabled us to gain a better understanding of how this currency works and its impact on the daily lives of its users.

This thesis offers a reassessment of Pieter Bruegel the Elder’s painting Children’s Games (1560, Kunsthistoriches Museum, Vienna). Addressing the lack of historically accurate interpretations of Bruegel’s panel, I use a wide range of sixteenth-century sources to develop fresh insights into how the work might have been understood by its original audience. The Introduction opens with a description of the painting’s iconography, provenance, current condition and conservation history. A review of previous literature relating to the panel sets Children’s Games within the trajectory of scholarship on Bruegel and other related works in his oeuvre and serves to highlight areas of scholarly difficulty and disagreement as well as current methodological trends. Considering the reception, rather than the inception, of Children’s Games, the third part of the Introduction outlines broader cultural developments which shaped habits of looking in the sixteenth century, including encyclopaedic texts, atlases, Wunderkammern and memory systems. Surmising that Bruegel’s viewers would have been adept at searching for arguments within abundant collections of material, I then introduce a number of sixteenth-century sources which detail contemporary attitudes towards game-playing. The Introduction ends with an outline of the structure and methodological approach of the thesis. Chapter 1, 'Artistic Precedents: Illuminated Manuscripts', considers the panel in relation to the iconography of popular games found in the borders of illuminated manuscripts produced in France and the Netherlands in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth century. After highlighting areas of shared iconography, I discuss how Children’s Games differs from illuminated manuscripts, concluding that Bruegel rejected the 'game of the month' tradition found in the calendar borders and instead amalgamated a variety of children’s games and festive customs to create a humanistic encyclopaedia of children’s culture. A second sixteenth-century source which details popular games is François Rabelais’s book Gargantua (1532). Chapter 2 presents my research into why Rabelais’s writing is relevant to Bruegel scholarship, including archival evidence that Rabelais’s books were available in Antwerp and an analysis of the Songes drolatiques de Pantagruel (1565), a collection of woodcuts which combined Rabelais’s name with Bruegelian imagery. I then compare Children's Games with the list of 217 popular games played by Gargantua and discuss how these fictional lists related to the factual compilations of the period. Gargantua’s game-list occurs in the context of his humanist education, a context which is also relevant to Bruegel’s panel. During the sixteenth century a wealth of material on children’s play and deportment emerged in the form of humanist school colloquies and treatises. A number of these were closely related to the education system in Antwerp and were penned by members of Bruegel’s circle of associates. These have never been brought to bear on Children’s Games, and are used in chapter 3 to develop a new, historically-accurate reading of the painting. The pedagogical texts suggest that during the sixteenth century children’s play was viewed positively and was closely bound to education, and so challenge the canonical view arising chiefly from c.17th emblem books and paintings that Children’s Games makes moral points about adult behaviour. Appendix 1 - Enumerates Bruegel’s games and records comparable depictions found in manuscripts, printed images and paintings from the fifteenth, sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Appendix 2 - Presents versions of Gargantua’s game-list from original editions of Rabelais’s text alongside standard translations and modern critical editions.

Mémoire numérisé par la Direction des bibliothèques de l'Université de Montréal.