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The intensity of light produced from synchrotrons enables X-ray imaging down to the micron and submicron scale. This high degree of resolution is necessary to study metals in hydrated biological samples, where trace (metal) elements are found in the lowest concentration. Water within these aqueous samples will undergo radiolysis and produce various reactive oxygen species, which degrades the quality of information gathered from the sample during X-ray imaging. Studies have shown that the best way to counter the effects of radiolysis and preserve samples in their metabolic state during X-ray imaging is to keep them cryogenically frozen. We have developed affordable cryostats and novel protocol to not only improve cryo-imaging at current third-generation synchrotrons, but also enable cryo-imaging at existing synchrotrons that have limited accessibility. This dissertation will provide a detailed description of the tasks that were accomplished to contribute to the development cryo-imaging. The first task was the fabrication of a portable cryostage. The cryostage's discreet profile and unique design successfully enabled it to be effortlessly adapted into three beamlines across two different DOE facilities and facilitate multiple imaging modalities, i.e., correlative imaging. With the next task, we explored adding an ice frame about the stage to help reduce the accumulation of frost on the surface of a frozen sample that was explored. The addition of the ice frame significantly improved the imaging of frozen samples, nearly doubling the overall image clarity in comparison to when it was absent. The final task saw the application of a cryostream, in place of a cryostage, to provide a cooled convective flux across the sample for 2D and 3D visualization for cryo X-ray imaging. / Doctor of Philosophy / Synchrotrons are light producing particle accelerators that enable X-ray imaging down to the micron and submicron scale. This high degree of resolution is necessary to study metals in hydrated biological samples, where trace elements are found in low concentrations. The X-ray beam from the synchrotron will force any water within these aqueous samples to undergo radiation induced water decomposition, i.e., radiolysis, and produce hydroxyl radicals that will degrade the quality of information gathered from the sample during X-ray imaging. Early studies have shown that the best counter to the effects of radiolysis, while also preserving samples in their metabolic state during X-ray imaging, is to keep them cryogenically frozen. We have developed affordable cryostats and novel protocols to not only improve cryo-imaging at current third-generation synchrotrons, but also enable cryo-imaging at existing synchrotrons that have limited accessibility. This dissertation will describe, in detail, three tasks that were accomplished. The first task was to the fabrication of a portable cryostage. The cryostage unique design successfully enabled it to be used within different beamlines and for multiple imaging perspectives. With the next task, an ice frame to help reduce the accumulation of frost on the surface of a frozen sample being explored. The ice frame was shown to significantly improve the imaging of frozen samples. The final task saw the application of a cryostream, a jet stream of cold nitrogen gas, to enable an alternative approach for 2D and 3D visualization for cryo X-ray imaging.

The most ubiquitous mode of frost formation on substrates is condensation frosting, where dew drops condense on a supercooled surface and subsequently freeze, and has been known since the time of Aristotle. The physics of frost incipience at a microscopic scale has, nevertheless, eluded researchers because of an unjustified ansatz regarding the primary mechanism of condensation frosting. It was widely assumed that during condensation frosting each supercooled droplet in the condensate population freezes in isolation by heterogeneous nucleation at the solid-liquid interface, quite analogous to the mechanism of icing. This assumption has very recently been invalidated with strong experimental evidence which shows that only a single droplet has to freeze by heterogeneous nucleation (typically by edge effects) in order to initiate condensation frosting in a supercooled condensate population. Once a droplet has frozen, it subsequently grows an ice bridge towards its nearest neighboring liquid droplet, freezing it in the process. Thus ensues a chain reaction of ice bridging where the newly frozen droplets grow ice bridges toward their nearest neighbor liquid droplets forming a percolating network of interconnected frozen droplets. Not always are these ice bridges successful in connecting to their adjacent liquid droplets. Sometimes the liquid droplet can completely evaporate before the ice bridges can connect, thus forming a local dry region in the vicinity of the ice bridge. In this work, we first formulate a thermodynamic framework in order to understand the localized vapor pressure gradients that emerge in mixed-mode phase-change systems and govern condensation and frost phenomena. Following this, we study droplet pair interactions between a frozen droplet and a liquid droplet to understand the physics behind the local ice bridge connections. We discuss the emergent scaling laws in ice bridging dynamics, their relative size dependencies, and growth rates. Thereafter, we show how with spatial control of interdroplet distances in a supercooled condensate and temporal control of the first freezing event, we can tune global frost propagation on a substrate and even cause a global failure of all ice bridges to create a dry zone. Subsequently, we perform a systematic study of dry zones and derive a scaling law for dry zones that collapses all of our experimental data spanning a wide parameter space. We then show that almost always the underlying mechanism behind the formation of dry zones around any hygroscopic droplet is inhibition of growth and not inhibition of nucleation. We end with a discussion and preliminary results of our proposed anti-frosting surface that uses ice itself to prevent frost. / Master of Science

Matter on earth exists mostly in three different phases of solid, liquid, and gas. With extreme amounts of energy, temperature, or pressure, a matter can be changed between the phases. Six different types of phase-change phenomena are possible: freezing (the substance changes from a liquid to a solid), melting (solid to liquid), condensation (gas to liquid), vaporization (liquid to gas), sublimation (solid to gas), and desublimation (gas to solid). Another form of phase change which will be discussed here is the wetting or dewetting transitions of a superhydrophobic surface, in which the phase residing within the surface structure switches between vapor and liquid. Phase transition phenomena frequently occur in our daily life; examples include: a ``liquid'' to ``solid'' transition when cars decrease their distance at a traffic light, solidification of liquids droplets during winter months, and the dancing of droplets on a non-sticking pan. In this dissertation we will address seven different phase-change problems occurring in nature. We unveil completely new forms of phase-change phenomena that exhibit rich physical behavior. For example, during traffic flow, drivers keep a large distance from the vehicle in front of them to ensure safe driving. When vehicles come to a stop, for example at a red light, drivers voluntarily induce a ``phase transition'' from this ``liquid phase'' to a close-packed ``solid phase''. This phase transition is motivated by the intuition that traveling as far as possible before stopping will minimize the overall travel time. However, we are going to investigate this phase-change process and show that this long standing intuition is wrong. Phase-change of solidification will be discussed for different problems. Moreover, the complex physics of oil as it wicks up sheets of frost and freezing of bubble unveil completely new forms of multiphase flows that exhibit rich physical behavior. Finally, the ``Cassie'' to ``Wenzel'' transition will be investigated for layered nano-textured surfaces. These phenomena will be modeled using thermodynamics and fluid mechanics equations. / Doctor of Philosophy / The main focus of this dissertation is on the dynamical phase change phenomena occurring in nature. First, we study the solid to liquid phase change of group of people moving from rest. We show that increasing the packing density of vehicles at a stop-and-go motion (e.g., vehicles at a traffic light) would not increase the efficiency of the flow once it is resumed. Second, we present a passive anti-frosting surfaces just by using the chemistry of ice. We show how the in-plane frost growth can be passively suppressed by patterning arrays of microscopic ice stripes across a surface. Third, we elucidate how bubbles deposited on a chilled and icy substrate freeze in different ambient conditions. We reveal the various phenomena that govern how soap bubbles freeze and produce a variety of beautiful effects. Fourth, we will study oil-ice interactions which are important for the emerging science of using oil-impregnated surfaces for anti-icing and anti-frosting applications, where oil drainage from the surface due to wicking onto ice is a pressing issue. We observe oil as it wicks up sheets of frost grown on aluminum surfaces of varying wettability: superhydrophilic, hydrophilic, hydrophobic, and superhydrophobic. Fifth, we study the effect of topography of the nanopillars on dynamics of jumping droplets. The critical diameter for jumping to occur was observed to be highly dependent on the height and diameter of the nanopillars, with droplets as small as 2 µm jumping on the surface with the tallest and most slender pillars. Sixth, we show that micrometric condensate spontaneously launches several millimeters from a wheat leaf’s surface, taking adhered pathogenic spores with it. We quantify spore liberation rates of order 10 cm⁻² hr⁻¹ during a dew cycle. Finally, inspired by duck feathers, two-tier porous superhydrophobic surfaces were fabricated to serve as synthetic mimics with a controlled surface structure. We show the effect of layers of feathers on energy barrier for the wetting transition.

Klimatutmaningar, lagändringar och ett ökat miljötänk har tvingat transportsektorn att ställa om till eldrift. Batterier och elmotorer har utvecklats kraftigt och är nu ett alternativ även för tunga fordon. Ett vanligt förekommande problem med elmotorer i fordon är lagerströmmar, här kallat gnista eller blixthändelser. Dessa uppstår på grund av oönskade urladdningar i motorn och förorsakar skador på lagren i motorn. Syftet med motorlager är att avlasta och minska friktionen kring motoraxeln. För att förebygga problemet och se förbättringar eller försämringar av olika åtgärder som görs krävs att lagerströmmar kan identifieras utifrån mätdata. Detta examensarbete analyserar relevant forskning inom området för att sedan introducera en metod och en algoritm för att identifiera lagerströmmar i samarbete med Scania CV. Algoritmen består av tre olika parametrar som påverkar identifieringen av de oönskade strömmarna på olika sätt. Verktyget lyckades identifierade lagerströmmar i olika mätdata, och hittade skillnader i antalet blixthändelser mellan olika körningar av provobjektet. Dock krävs vidare utveckling av verktyget och möjligheten att bearbeta annan typ av data som exempelvis spänningar i motorn för atthitta bättre samband. / A changing climate, changing laws and an increased environmental consciousnesshas forced the transport sector to transition to electric power. Batteries and electric motors have seen a quick and powerful development which means that they are now an alternative even for heavy vehicles. A common problem with electric motors forvehicles is bearing currents. The bearing currents occur as a result of electrical discharges in the motor and can damage the bearings inside the motor. The purpose of motor bearings is to offload and reduce friction for the motor shaft. To prevent the issue and to see improvements or deteriorations from different preventativemeasures it is critical to be able to identify bearing currents from data. This thesis analyzes relevant research in the area before introducing a method and an algorithm for detecting bearing currents in cooperation with Scania CV. The algorithm is composed of three different parameters which affects the identification in different ways. The tool was able to identify bearing currents from various data and found differences between the number of bearing currents between different test runs of the motor. However, more development of the tool and the possibility to process different kinds of data like voltages inside the motor is needed to be able to find better patterns in the data.

La consommation mondiale en énergie qui augmente progressivement a favorisé la recherche de ressources alternatives renouvelables. L’Europe a mis le développement de la filière de biogaz comme une priorité pour valoriser la matière organique et produire une énergie durable et un carburant propre. Plusieurs technologies ont été développées afin de produire le bio-méthane et ensuite le liquéfier. Cryo Pur a développé un procédé cryogénique où le biogaz est refroidi progressivement à 3 niveaux de température :-40 °C ; -75 °C et -120 °C. Dans un premier temps, la vapeur d’eau est extraite à -40 °C et à -75 °C, le biogaz sec ne contient plus alors que du méthane à une concentration de 65 % et du CO2 à 35 %. Le biogaz est alors refroidi jusqu’à -120 °C dans un système frigorifique en cascade intégrée pour capter le dioxyde de carbone jusqu’à une concentration résiduelle de 2 %. Une fois ce bio-méthane obtenu, il est liquéfié. A une pression de 15 bara et une température de -120 °C. Une étude énergétique et exergétique est menée et prend comme référence le pilote d’épuration et de liquéfaction Cryo Pur installé à la sortie de méthaniseurs de la station d’épuration de Valenton. Le CO2 est capté par givrage sur les ailettes d’échangeurs frigorifiques ; le dégivrage est effectué par un débit diphasique prélevé à l’étage -40 °C de la cascade intégrée. La thèse compare l’énergie récupérée par un dégivrage en phase liquide du CO2 avec donc une remontée en température jusqu’à -56 °C (température du point triple du CO2) et un dégivrage par sublimation du CO2 à une température bien inférieure à -56 °C qui fait l’objet d’une optimisation énergétique. La thèse mène aussi une étude énergétique et exergétique du procédé complet d’épuration de biogaz et de liquéfaction de bio-méthane avec récupération d’énergie par sublimation du dioxyde de carbone.Un banc d’essai est conçu pour évaluer la performance énergétique du procédé de dégivrage du CO2 par sublimation. Les différents éléments nécessaires de ce banc d’essai sont présentés avec leurs consommations énergétiques. Dans ce banc d’essai, le dégivrage du dioxyde de carbone par sublimation est effectué via un caloporteur qui récupère la froideur de sublimation du CO2 réduisant la puissance consommée par la cascade intégrée. Ce nouveau procédé a besoin d’une pompe à vide. La consommation de cette pompe à vide dépend de la pression de sublimation et fait l’objet d’une étude d’optimisation énergétique. La densité du CO2 varie énormément en fonction de la température et la pression de sublimation. Un modèle de calcul de l’évolution de l’épaisseur du givre au cours de la sublimation est présenté. Comme conclusion de cette partie, une comparaison est faite entre la consommation électrique spécifique du système installé à Valenton et celle du banc d’essai.D’autre part, la durée du cycle de givrage demande elle aussi une étude d’optimisation énergétique associée au dimensionnement de l’échangeur de captage du CO2. L’échangeur tube-ailettes avec la forme de l’ailette et les paramètres affectant le givrage du CO2 sont présentés. Une étude est effectuée pour répartir uniformément la masse de CO2 déposée sur la surface d’échange pour réduire le taux de blocage de l’échangeur et prolonger la durée de la phase de givrage. Une étude sur l’effet de la vitesse du biogaz et du glissement en température du réfrigérant sur la durée du cycle est menée ainsi qu’une étude sur les matériaux des ailettes et des tubes choisis afin de minimiser la surface d’échange en gardant la sortie du bio-méthane avec 2 % de CO2. / Global energy consumption, which is gradually increasing, has led to the search for alternative renewable resources. Europe has put the development of the biogas sector as a priority to enhance organic matter and produce sustainable energy and clean fuel. Several technologies have been developed to produce bio-methane and then to liquefy it. Cryo Pur developed a cryogenic process where the biogas is cooled gradually to 3 temperature levels: -40 ° C; -75 ° C and -120 °C. In a first step, the steam is extracted at -40 °C and at -75 ° C, the dry biogas contains 65 % methane and 35 % CO2. The biogas is then cooled to -120 °C in a low-temperature refrigeration system to capture carbon dioxide and obtain bio-methane with 2.5 % of CO2. Once this bio-methane is obtained, it is liquefied at a pressure of 15 bara and a temperature of -120 °C. An energy and exergy study is studied and takes as reference the pilot of purification and liquefaction Cryo Pur installed at the exit of digester of the purification station of Valenton. CO2 is captured by frosting on the fins of heat exchangers. The defrosting is carried out by a two-phase flow rate taken from the -40 °C stage of the low-temperature refrigeration system. The thesis compares the energy recovered by a liquid CO2 defrosted with a rise in temperature up to -56 °C (triple point temperature of CO2) and defrosting by sublimation of CO2 at a temperature much lower than - 56 ° C which is the subject of an energy optimization. The thesis also conducts an energy and exergy study of the complete process of biogas and bio-methane liquefaction with the recovery of energy by sublimation of carbon dioxide.A test bench is designed to evaluate the energy performance of the CO2 defrosting process by sublimation. The various necessary elements of this test bench are presented with their energy consumption. In this test bench, the defrosting of the carbon dioxide by sublimation is carried out via a low-temperature heat-transfer fluid which recovers the energy sublimation of the CO2 reducing the power consumed by the low-temperature refrigeration system. This new process requires a vacuum pump. The consumption of this vacuum pump depends on the sublimation pressure and is the subject of an energy optimization study. The density of CO2 varies enormously depending on the temperature and the sublimation pressure. A model of the evolution of the thickness of the frost during the sublimation is presented. As a conclusion of this section, a comparison is made between the specific power consumption of the system installed at Valenton and that of the test bench.On the other hand, the duration of the frosting cycle also requires an energy optimization study associated with the design of the exchanger that capture the CO2. The tube-fins exchanger with the shape of the fin and the parameters affecting the CO2 frosting are presented. A study is carried out to uniformly distribution of the CO2 mass on the exchange surface to reduce the blocking rate of the exchanger and to extend the duration of the frosting phase. A study on the effect of biogas velocity and temperature slippage of the refrigerant over the cycle is carried out as well as a study on the materials of the fins and tubes selected in order to minimize the exchange surface and have the bio-methane with 2 % CO2.

Dans le cadre du développement des voitures électriques (VE), la solution de chauffage de l’habitacle par pompe à chaleur (PAC) s’impose graduellement en raison des plus grandes efficacités de ces dernières par rapport aux résistances électriques classiques. Cependant, dans certaines conditions, du givre se forme sur l’évapo-condenseur entraînant une dégradation marquée des performances du système. L’enjeu général de ce travail est donc de développer une PAC pour VE efficace en conditions de givrage afin d’améliorer l'autonomie en hiver. Pour ce faire, un évapo-condenseur résistant au givrage est nécessaire. Afin d’améliorer le design de l’échangeur, un modèle dynamique et pseudo 3D d’échangeur à microcanaux, typique de l’automobile, en conditions de givrage a été développé. Un sous-modèle de croissance de givre à la fois simple et précis a été établi en étudiant les différentes hypothèses de modélisation trouvées dans la littérature. Ensuite, au niveau échangeur de chaleur, la clé réside dans la bonne prédiction des pertes de charge aérauliques. Ainsi, une nouvelle approche a été de considérer les épaisseurs maximales locales de givre et une corrélation intégrant l’impact du givre afin de bien prédire les pertes de charge, la chute du débit d’air, et donc la chute de la puissance thermique de l’échangeur. Le modèle complet d’échangeur de chaleur couplé à un ventilateur a été validé expérimentalement. À partir d’une étude numérique basée sur le modèle, deux concepts innovants ont été établis : l’un avec ailettes ondulées débordantes et l’autre avec passes de réfrigérant croisées. Deux prototypes ont été fabriqués, à partir de l’évapo-condenseur de la Renault Zoé, puis testés. Le meilleur des deux échangeurs, celui à ailettes débordantes, a été monté sur véhicule et comparé à l’échangeur de la Zoé. Le prototype a permis d’allonger d’environ 2.5 fois la période de fonctionnement du système. Finalement, un modèle de PAC avec givrage a été réalisé et intégré dans un modèle complet de VE. Pour un VE avec une autonomie d’environ 140 km sans chauffage, il s’avère que le givrage de la PAC dégrade l’autonomie d’environ 15% pour un trajet à 0°C et 90% d'humidité. Grâce à l’utilisation du prototype à ailettes ondulées débordantes, cette perte d’autonomie est de 3% seulement. / In the electric vehicle (EV) development context, the choice of heat pumps (HP) for cabin heating is becoming more popular due to their high efficiency compared to electric heaters. However, under some operating conditions, frost forms on the HP evapo-condenser causing a dramatic drop in the system performances until the system cannot operate. Hence, this work aims at developing a HP for EV which remains efficient under frosting conditions ultimately, to improve the EV range in the winter. This requires the design of a frost-resistant heat exchanger (HX). First, to improve the HX design, a dynamic and pseudo-3D model under frosting conditions of a typical HX for cars has been developed. A simple and accurate frost growth sub-model has been established by studying the various modeling assumptions found in the literature. Then, at the HX level, the key point has been to predict the air pressure losses, via the consideration of the maximum local frost thicknesses and the development of a correlation considering frost, in order to predict the drop of airflow and therefore the drop of the HX cooling capacity. Then, the model of the HX coupled with the fan has been validated experimentally. Using the model, a numerical study has been conducted and two innovative concepts have been established: one with wavy upstream extending fins and the other with crossed passes of refrigerant. Two prototypes were fabricated, using a reference HX taken from the Renault Zoé, and then tested. The best of the two HX, the one with upstream extending fins, was mounted on a VE and compared to the reference case. The prototype allowed extending the system operation by 2.5 times approximately. Finally, a HP model under frosting conditions was built and integrated into a EV model. It appeared that, for an EV with a range of approximately 140 km without heating, the HP frosting degrades the autonomy by about 15% at 0°C and 90% humidity, which was reduced to 3% via the use of the innovative HX prototype with wavy upstream extending fins.

The wettability and phase change phenomena of water are ubiquitous on biological and artificial surfaces. Properties like water repellency, self-cleaning, coalescence induced condensation jumping, anti-frosting, and dew harvesting arise on surfaces with particular structures and chemistry and are of particular interest for energy and water saving. This thesis collects different studies of wettability and phase change on natural and artificial surfaces: growth and self-ejection of condensation droplets on micro and nanostructured surfaces we fabricated, their applications, the Sliding on Frost of condensation droplets observed on the Cotinus Coggygria leaf, the dew harvesting property of the Old Man of the Andes Cactus enhanced by distance coalescence through microgrooves and finally, a theoretical study of viruses viability in sessile droplets. The first chapter introduces the theoretical framework of wettability and phase changes on surfaces. In the second chapter, we present the self-ejection of condensation droplets from hydrophobic nanostructured microstructures. We modelled analytically the droplets jumping and fabricated surfaces to verify the predictions. The fabricated geometry was inspired by the modelling and the available fabrication techniques. We tested the surfaces in condensation conditions. Using a high frame rate camera coupled with a long working distance microscopy objective, we investigated the growth and ejection transient. We then compared the experimental self-ejection velocity for various structures geometry with our analytical models. In Chapter 3, we investigated the applications of the fabricated surfaces reported in Chapter 2. In Chapter 4, we explore the condensation frosting on the leaf of Cotinus Coggygria, native of our woods and with interesting hydrophobic properties. Covered by wax nanotubules, it exhibits coalescence-induced condensation jumpings that may be a useful cleaning tool. Furthermore, the frost is delayed but not only for the jumping. Surprisingly, at temperatures some degrees below zero, we observed what we called ‘droplet Sliding on Frost bridges’, that further delays frosting. We described the feasibility of this sliding in terms of dynamic contact angles of the surface and contact angles of supercooled water on ice. By capturing high temporal and spatial resolution videos we investigated the sliding on frost and droplet recalescence (fast dendrite growth that partially solidify the liquid). The responsible for the failure of sliding for temperatures from about -8 ° C down appears to be the advancing angle of water on ice that increases with the subcooling rather than the recalescence that blocks the drop in place. These results add a piece to the fundamental research on the supercooled water-ice-vapour interfaces. As it often happens, biological surfaces offer a starting point for the study of fundamental mechanisms and the development of artificial surfaces with optimized properties. In the Chapter 5, the multifunctional roles of hairs and spines in Old Man of the Andes Cactus (Oreocereus trolli) are studied. We study the morphology of the appendages, the hairs wettability, mechanical properties of both, and the dew formation on spines. The longitudinal microgrooves on the spines cause a particular phenomenon of distant coalescence (DC), in which smaller droplets flow totally or partially into larger ones through the microgrooves, with consequent accumulation of water in a few large drops. An earlier study has shown artificial micro-grooved surfaces that exhibit DC are more efficient than flat ones at collecting and sliding dew, and thus these cactus spines could act as soil dew conveyors. The agreement between our analytical model and experimental data verifies that the flow is driven by the Laplace pressure difference between the drops. This allowed us to obtain a general criterion for predicting the total or partial emptying of the smaller drops as a function of the dynamic contact angles of a surface. Based on this criterion, an hydrophilic material with small contact angle hysteresis would allow a greater number of complete drops emptying. The COVID-19 pandemic has raised the problem of contagion from airborne and deposited droplets. In the last chapter, we report the state of the art of experiments on the viability of viruses in deposited droplets. Up to date, it has been experimentally highlighted that the relative viability of some viruses (RV) depends on the material chemistry, temperature, and interestingly, on relative humidity (RH) with a U-shaped trend. One of the current hypotheses is that the cumulative dose of salt concentration (CD) affects RV. We model the RV of viruses in sessile droplets by inserting a RV-CD relation in a model of droplet evaporation. By considering a saline water droplet (one salt) as the simplest approximation of real solutions, we analytically simulate the time evolution of salt concentration, vapor pressure, and droplet volume varying contact angles, droplet sizes, and RH in the range 0–100%. The results elucidate some previously not yet well-understood dynamics, demonstrating how three main regimes—directly implicated in nontrivial experimental trends of virus RV—can be recognized as the function of RH. The proposed approach could suggest a chart of a virus fate by predicting its survival time at a given temperature as a function of RH and contact angle. We found a good agreement with experimental data for various enveloped viruses and predicted in particular for the Phi6 virus, a surrogate of coronavirus, the characteristic U-shaped dependence of RV on RH. Given the generality of the model, once experimental data are available that link the vulnerability of a certain virus (such as SARS-CoV-2) to the concentrations of salts or other substances in terms of CD, it is envisioned that this approach could be employed for antivirus strategies and protocols for the prediction/reduction of human health risks associated with SARS-CoV-2 and other viruses.