Previous research and literature commonly agree to the fact that women, especially rural women, is the most vulnerable group in society. Many of them tend to be found in the poorest sections of society. Women depend on natural resources for their livelihoods and are discriminated concerning labour division and access, control and knowledge about natural resources such as forests. Changes in the climate and natural degradation, especially forest degradation are threatening their livelihoods. Gender relations are structured around managing the environment where women are seen as major users and managers of the forests. The aim and the research questions of this study is to examine how women in Senegal experience that their everyday life and livelihood activities within fuelwood collection have been affected by deforestation. Furthermore, what reason do women see behind deforestation and the changes in their local environments. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with eleven women from two villages in southern Senegal in the region of Casamance and Sine-Saloum. All these women were involved in fuelwood collecting activities. The result of the study was analysed through previous research, feminist political ecology approach and through definitions of livelihood and sustainable development in order to explain women’s experiences and activities within fuelwood collection. The result found that all women experiences changes in their livelihoods because of deforestation. The amount of time spent on fuelwood collecting activities increased while it less time was left to other activities. Women’s income and resources from the forests reduced or disappeared and the main focus turned into cover the needs of the household. Women’s personal everyday lives have been negatively affected by deforestation. Heavy work had negative health effects on the women. Some women have left fuelwood collection for alternative sources of income because it has become too demanding. Furthermore, the results showed that women are worried about their future since they are in mutual need of forests as well as fuelwood to survive.

A transição energética residencial começou a receber especial atenção da comunidade científica nos anos 1970 e 1980, quando se acreditava na ocorrência iminente da Crise da Lenha. Na época, temia-se que o corrente ritmo de consumo de biomassas sólidas em países em desenvolvimento ultrapassaria a capacidade de produção primária dos ambientes naturais, com sérias consequências para as camadas menos abastadas da população destes locais, que se veriam em uma situação de escassez de fontes de energia. Apesar de esta crise nunca haver, de fato, se concretizado, a preocupação com a sua potencial ocorrência estimulou o desenvolvimento de modelos que visavam à interpretação do fenômeno da transição energética residencial decorrente do processo de urbanização e aumento de renda dos usuários finais. Tal interesse culminou na elaboração do modelo da Escada Energética que, de uma maneira geral, previa que o abandono de fontes de energia tradicionais e a adoção de fontes de energia modernas era o resultado do aumento do status social da população. Inicialmente, a Escada Energética se estabeleceu como principal modelo de transição energética residencial. À medida que novos estudos foram desenvolvidos, entretanto, evidências passaram a sugerir que diversos fatores envolvidos na transição energética em países em desenvolvimento não podiam ser explicados pelo modelo. Estas evidências subsidiaram a concepção do modelo do Acúmulo de Combustíveis, segundo o qual a diversificação, e não a substituição, de energéticos seria o resultado do desenvolvimento social da população. Atualmente, não existe consenso sobre qual modelo melhor reflete o fenômeno da transição energética residencial. Como consequência, políticas públicas de acesso a energia e serviços energéticos limpos baseadas nestas diferentes interpretações possuem características e resultados distintos. Neste contexto, o presente trabalho pretende contribuir para a discussão sobre qual modelo de transição energética melhor reflete a realidade dos consumidores residenciais de energia de países em desenvolvimento a partir da apresentação de dois estudos de caso que retratam diferentes facetas da questão. As análises elaboradas indicam que o modelo do Acúmulo de Combustíveis consegue representar com maior fidelidade o fenômeno da transição energética residencial e que políticas públicas estruturadas segundo seu arcabouço teórico podem contribuir mais eficazmente para a melhoria das condições de vida da população. / The residential energy transition began to receive special attention from the scientific community in 70s and 80s, when a Fuelwood crisis was believed to be imminent. At the time, it was feared that the current rhythm of solid biomass consumption would not keep pace with the primary productivity of the forests and other sources of fuelwood, with severe consequences striking the least wealthy households, who would face an energy shortage. Although the referred crisis never really happened, the concern with its potential occurrence stimulated the development of models aiming at interpreting the energy transition phenomenon provoked by the urbanization process and the increase in income of households. Such interest culminated in the elaboration of the Energy Ladder model, which indicated that the abandonment of traditional energy sources and the adoption of modern ones was the result of the increase of the social status of the population. Initially, the Energy Ladder established itself as the main residential energy transition model. As new studies were being developed, however, evidences suggesting that different factors related to the energy transition in developing countries couldnt be explained by the model were found. These evidences supported the conception of the Fuel Staking model, according to which diversification, instead of substitution, resulted from the social development of the population. Currently, there is no consensus on which model better represents the residential energy transition. As a consequence, public policies focused on clean energy and energy services access based on these different interpretations have different characteristics and results. In such context, this work intends to contribute to the discussion on which energy transition model better reflects the reality of households in developing countries by presenting two case studies showing different aspects of the thematic. The analysis presented suggests that the Fuel Stacking model can better represent the residential energy transition phenomenon and that public policies structured according to its theoretical framework are more effective in contributing to increase the living standards of the population.

Diss. (sammanfattning) Umeå : Sveriges lantbruksuniversitet, 2007. / Härtill 4 uppsatser.

Diss. (sammanfattning) Uppsala : Sveriges lantbruksuniv., 2007. / Härtill 4 uppsatser.

Thesis (MScFor (Forest and Wood Science))--University of Stellenbosch, 2009. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Access to secure energy supplies is widely acknowledged as a critical foundation for sustainable development. Rural households are highly dependent on forest resources for their livelihoods including energy needs. Fuelwood is a non-timber forest product (NTFP) that accounts for one of the main uses of forests and woodlands. Despite substantial household electrification programmes in South Africa, the use of fuelwood as a source of energy continues. This study aimed to analyze fuelwood use patterns of two rural villages situated in Keiskammahoek in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa in order to understand the perceptions of the community members regarding communal tree planting. The study was conducted in two rural villages, namely, Cata and Tshoxa. A total of 120 respondents from both villages were interviewed using semi-structured questionnaires to collect data on the use of fuelwood and evaluate their perception on tree planting. The study revealed that up to 77% of the people living in Keiskammahoek used fuelwood as a major source of energy and that women were the main collectors and users of fuelwood. In the rural Cata, food is cooked in three-legged pots over open fires while in Tshoxa food is mainly cooked over paraffin and electric stoves. The respondents from both villages did not have energy conservation measures in place and improved wood stoves have not been introduced in this region. The local community of Cata was also involved in tree planting on a community level, while both villages were also involved in tree planting at a household level. The study concluded that fuelwood was the most important product from the forests in both rural areas and natural forests were a valuable source of other NTFPs; most notably indigenous fruit products. In addition most of the fuelwood was used for cooking and heating purposes but that there was no deliberate use of energy efficient methods. On tree planting, the study showed that communities from both rural villages have an interest in planting trees around their households; with preference for fruit and shade trees. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Toegang tot betroubare energieverskaffing word algemeen erken as 'n uiters belangrike grondslag vir volhoubare ontwikkeling. Plattelandse huishoudings is hoogs afhanklik van bosbronne vir hul bestaan, met inbegrip van energiebehoeftes. Brandhout is 'n nie-hout bosproduk (NHBP) wat beskou word as een van die hoofgebruike van woude en boslande. Nieteenstaande wesenlike elektrifiseringsprogramme vir huishoudings in Suid-Afrika, duur die gebruik van brandhout as 'n bron van energie voort. Hierdie studie het beoog om die gebruikspatrone van brandhout van twee plattelandse dorpe in Keiskammahoek in die Oos-Kaapse Provinsie van Suid-Afrika te ontleed en om die begrip van die gemeenskap aangaande die gemeenskaplike plant van bome te verstaan. Die studie is in twee plattelandse dorpe, naamlik Cata en Tshoxa, uitgevoer. Onderhoude is gevoer met 'n totaal van 120 respondente van beide dorpe deur die gebruik van halfgestruktureerde vraelyste om gegewens oor die gebruik van brandhout in te samel en die respondente se begrip van die plant van bome te evalueer. Die studie het aan die lig gebring dat tot 77% van die mense wat in Keiskammahoek woon, brandhout as 'n hoofbron van energie gebruik en dat vrouens die hoofgaarders en gebruikers van brandhout is. In die landelike Cata word kos in driepootpotte op oop vure gekook terwyl kos in Tshoxa hoofsaaklik op paraffien- en elektriese stowe gekook word. Die respondente van beide dorpe het nie energiebesparingsmaatreëls in plek gehad nie en verbeterde houtstowe is nog nie in hierdie streek ingebring nie. Die plaaslike gemeenskap van Cata was ook betrokke by die plant van bome op 'n gemeenskapsvlak, terwyl beide dorpe ook betrokke was by die plant van bome op 'n huishoudelike vlak. Die studie het tot ’n gevolgtrekking gekom dat brandhout die belangrikste produk van die woude in beide plattelandse gebiede is en dat die natuurlike woude 'n belangrike bron van ander NHBP’s is; veral inheemse vrugteprodukte. Daarbenewens is meeste van die brandhout gebruik vir kook- en verhittingsdoeleindes, maar daar was geen doelbewuste gebruik van energiedoeltreffende metodes nie. Op die gebied van die plant van bome het die studie getoon dat die gemeenskappe van beide plattelandse dorpe belange het in die plant van bome rondom hulle huishoudings; met voorkeur aan vrugte- en skadubome.

A transição energética residencial começou a receber especial atenção da comunidade científica nos anos 1970 e 1980, quando se acreditava na ocorrência iminente da Crise da Lenha. Na época, temia-se que o corrente ritmo de consumo de biomassas sólidas em países em desenvolvimento ultrapassaria a capacidade de produção primária dos ambientes naturais, com sérias consequências para as camadas menos abastadas da população destes locais, que se veriam em uma situação de escassez de fontes de energia. Apesar de esta crise nunca haver, de fato, se concretizado, a preocupação com a sua potencial ocorrência estimulou o desenvolvimento de modelos que visavam à interpretação do fenômeno da transição energética residencial decorrente do processo de urbanização e aumento de renda dos usuários finais. Tal interesse culminou na elaboração do modelo da Escada Energética que, de uma maneira geral, previa que o abandono de fontes de energia tradicionais e a adoção de fontes de energia modernas era o resultado do aumento do status social da população. Inicialmente, a Escada Energética se estabeleceu como principal modelo de transição energética residencial. À medida que novos estudos foram desenvolvidos, entretanto, evidências passaram a sugerir que diversos fatores envolvidos na transição energética em países em desenvolvimento não podiam ser explicados pelo modelo. Estas evidências subsidiaram a concepção do modelo do Acúmulo de Combustíveis, segundo o qual a diversificação, e não a substituição, de energéticos seria o resultado do desenvolvimento social da população. Atualmente, não existe consenso sobre qual modelo melhor reflete o fenômeno da transição energética residencial. Como consequência, políticas públicas de acesso a energia e serviços energéticos limpos baseadas nestas diferentes interpretações possuem características e resultados distintos. Neste contexto, o presente trabalho pretende contribuir para a discussão sobre qual modelo de transição energética melhor reflete a realidade dos consumidores residenciais de energia de países em desenvolvimento a partir da apresentação de dois estudos de caso que retratam diferentes facetas da questão. As análises elaboradas indicam que o modelo do Acúmulo de Combustíveis consegue representar com maior fidelidade o fenômeno da transição energética residencial e que políticas públicas estruturadas segundo seu arcabouço teórico podem contribuir mais eficazmente para a melhoria das condições de vida da população. / The residential energy transition began to receive special attention from the scientific community in 70s and 80s, when a Fuelwood crisis was believed to be imminent. At the time, it was feared that the current rhythm of solid biomass consumption would not keep pace with the primary productivity of the forests and other sources of fuelwood, with severe consequences striking the least wealthy households, who would face an energy shortage. Although the referred crisis never really happened, the concern with its potential occurrence stimulated the development of models aiming at interpreting the energy transition phenomenon provoked by the urbanization process and the increase in income of households. Such interest culminated in the elaboration of the Energy Ladder model, which indicated that the abandonment of traditional energy sources and the adoption of modern ones was the result of the increase of the social status of the population. Initially, the Energy Ladder established itself as the main residential energy transition model. As new studies were being developed, however, evidences suggesting that different factors related to the energy transition in developing countries couldnt be explained by the model were found. These evidences supported the conception of the Fuel Staking model, according to which diversification, instead of substitution, resulted from the social development of the population. Currently, there is no consensus on which model better represents the residential energy transition. As a consequence, public policies focused on clean energy and energy services access based on these different interpretations have different characteristics and results. In such context, this work intends to contribute to the discussion on which energy transition model better reflects the reality of households in developing countries by presenting two case studies showing different aspects of the thematic. The analysis presented suggests that the Fuel Stacking model can better represent the residential energy transition phenomenon and that public policies structured according to its theoretical framework are more effective in contributing to increase the living standards of the population.

The people of Pikoli in the Peddie district of the Eastern Cape are mostly unemployed and earn most of their income from old-age allowances. The place is remote and 'modern' amenities such as paraffin and petroleum gas are expensive. Electricity and transport are unavailable. There is heavy reliance on woody plants for fuel and for materials for construction and fencing and to some extent medicinal and ritual uses. Indigenous trees in this rural area are threatened by over-utilisation and the absence of clear government management policies. The over-utilisation of these resources is leading to deforestation. It was proposed at the beginning of this study that people who harvest trees cause similar results to the piosphere effect caused by the herbivores on the rangeland. Ecological-economic analysis was performed to find a common ground between the people's income and needs so that effective sustainable management strategies can be developed. A combination of semi-structured interviews, direct observations and ecological surveys were used to gather information about: Tree species used, and for what purpose in Pikoli; Individual tree species preference by inhabitants; Change in tree density in response to changes in utilisation intensity at varying distances away from the village; The local direct use benefits inhabitants derive from utilising indigenous tree resources. The study showed that the people of Pikoli use a variety of 23 indigenous trees and that they have marked preferences regarding the tree species they use for fuelwood and construction purposes. Although Ptaeroxylon obliquum is a highly preferred species for fuelwood and construction, its popularity can also be linked to its high relative abundance in this area. Other species such Maytenus undata and Pappea capensis are also highly preferred although they are harvested at much greater distances from thecentre of the village. Change in individual tree density in response to changes in utilisation intensity at varying distances away from the village showed clearly that a piosphere effect also applies to human harvesting. The average number of individual trees closer (1 200 m) to the village centre was 2 trees per 100 m², and their numbers increase to approximately 35 trees per 100 m² at a distance of about 3 000 m from the village centre. The study reports on the direct use benefits derived by the people of Pikoli from harvesting tree resources. The average total net value of trees harvested for fuelwood was R4089.09 (US$ 359.01) per household per annum. The value of tree resources harvested represents a large percentage of average households' annual income. Therefore, the economic benefits households derive from utilising tree resources are high. Indigenous tree resource use in this rural village seems to be unsustainable and the inhabitants seem to be aware of it. However, they have few alternatives. Their economic conditions do not allow them to afford alternative resources available in the formal market.

MENVM / Department of Geography and Geo-Information Sciences / Fuel wood is regarded as a major source of energy around the world, particularly in developing nations. Most rural communities around the world, consider forests as the repository of stored energy. The high dependence on forests as a source of fuel wood has a major impact on vegetation because trees take a long time to regenerate to maturity, hence high dependence leads to deforestation. Fuel wood is used for household needs, such as cooking and heating and its uses contribute to the emissions of Green House Gases (GHG) such as CO2, CH4, and Black Carbon amongst others. The study assesses household energy use, the amount of carbon dioxide emitted from the combustion of fuel wood, the extent of de-vegetation and strategies to ensure sustainable energy provisions in the case study areas. Primary and secondary methods were used to collect data. The data were analysed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS 21.0), showing the frequency distribution, measures of central tendency and chi-square to determine the extent of fuel wood used in relation to electricity. The primary data were collected through personal observations, field surveys, interviews and questionnaires, while secondary data included the 2011 South Africa Census data and remote sensing images, which with the aid of GIS, were used in mapping the vegetation change.

Die vorliegende Dissertation beinhaltet eine detaillierte Analyse traditioneller und moderner Bioenergie, sowie deren möglicher Entwicklungspfade und Auswirkung auf Ernährungssicherheit im ländlichen Tansania. Die Arbeit bereichert die wissenschaftlichen Debatten mittels Aufzeigen von Optionen der nachhaltigen Produktion und Verbrauch von Bioenergie. Der Komplex wird in vier separaten und begutachteten Fachartikeln (drei publiziert, einer under review) bearbeitet. Alle Publikationen erzielen Aussagen für vier Einkommensgruppen auf lokaler Ebene. Für eine optimale Analyse ist die Arbeit thematisch in die Forschungsgebiete traditionelle und moderne Bioenergie unterteilt, die sich auch in den Kapiteln bzgl. des aktuellen Forschungsstandes sowie der Abfolge der Fachartikel widerspiegeln. Die erste Publikation beschäftigt sich mit traditionellem Bioenergiekonsum und der postulierten Einführung eines feuerholz-spezifischen, energetisch optimierten Kochers in dem Hauptuntersuchungsdorf Laela. Die Effekte einer Einführung von technologisch optimierten Holzkohlemeilern werden in der zweiten Publikation widergegeben. Nach diesem Fokus auf traditionelle Bioenergie analysiert der dritte Artikel die Effekte auf Nahrungsmittelsicherheit, die sich aus der angenommenen Verstromung von Pflanzenölen ergeben. Der vierte Artikel analysiert die Möglichkeiten einer erhöhten Palmölproduktion und leitet Ergebnisse für die tansanische Region Kigoma ab. Eine finale Empfehlung dieser Dissertation ist, dass die Verbreitung und Nutzung von verbesserten Kochern stark erhöht werden muss. Gleichzeitig sollten politischen Maßnahmen ergriffen werden, die Zugang und Verfügbarkeit von verlässlicher, erschwinglicher und nachhaltiger traditioneller wie moderner Bioenergie garantieren. Zudem muss die Etablierung einer effizienteren wie nachhaltigeren Holzkohle-Wertschöpfungskette vorangetrieben werden. Pflanzenölbasierte Elektrizitätsproduktion dagegen wirkt sich negativ auf die Ernährungssicherheit aus. / This PhD thesis provides a detailed analysis of the traditional and modern bioenergy situation as well as their development pathways and their respective influence on food security in case study villages in rural Tanzania. It adds to the current literature as it provides a profound understanding of how to enhance and sustain bioenergy production and consumption in terms of resource capacity and overall sustainability. For this, it comprises four peer-reviewed papers (3 published, one under review). All papers derive results for four income groups at local level. For an optimized analysis, the dissertation is thematically subdivided into the research areas of traditional and modern bioenergy which is displayed in the state of art research sections as well as the clustering of the papers. The first paper focuses on traditional bioenergy consumption and the potential introduction of a firewood-efficient stove in the major case-study village Laela. The effects of the introduction of more efficient kiln technology on resource consumption in the same village are mirrored in the second publication. After this focus on traditional bioenergy, the third paper investigates food security effects resulting out of the assumed use of vegetable oil for electrification purposes. The fourth paper analyses options for increased palm oil production and derives results for the Tanzanian region of Kigoma. The final recommendation of the thesis is that the prevalence and use of improved stoves needs to be increased substantially. Simultaneously, policy measures that foster the access to and availability of reliable, affordable and sustainable traditional as well as modern energy should be implemented. Furthermore, the establishment of a more efficient and sustainable charcoal value chain needs to be promoted. Vegetable oil based electrification, however, does not contribute towards food security.

Persistent poverty, social and economic inequalities are some of the challenges in the process of national development efforts targeted in the United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Yet in South Africa, poverty, hunger, social and economic inequalities are still on the increase especially among poor rural to urban migrants. Because of severe poverty in rural areas, large populations of rural poor migrate to urban areas in search of better life. However, the growing energy needs in the urban areas where these people settle and their use of inefficient energy technologies negatively impact on the balance of environmental resources on which their socio-economic development depends. Efficient, affordable and environmental friendly technologies are therefore vital for improving the livelihood conditions and protecting the much needed environmental resources of the country. On the contrary, current practices presently dominating energy provision issues in South Africa are insufficient to solve the problems of socio-economic inequalities, especially for the increasing urban poor population. In addition, they are also failing to protect the environment and natural resources. Electrification of poor urban and peri-urban areas by both grid and off-grid systems through the top-down development practice is doing very little to change the socio-economic conditions of the poor section of the population in the country. Likewise, the provision of modern energy through public sector agencies such as Eskom is inadequate and inappropriate for the rapidly expanding urban and peri-urban poor areas in the country. One major reason that hinders provision of such services to the overcrowded consumer population in these areas is the massive capital investment required and inability to pay electricity bills by urban poor households. Against the above background, this study examined the use of improved wood stoves in two peri-urban areas (Umsilinga and Isnathing) in Pietermaritzburg, South Africa as an alternative modern energy technology on how they would socio-economically benefit the peri-urban poor. It looked at the following: The efficiency of four improved wood stoves (Yamampera, Simunye, Household Rocket and Vesto) in comparison with the three stone open fire, The impact of the efficient burning of the four improved stoves, Factors influencing consumers in choosing a specific energy technology to use, The effectiveness of the improved wood stoves placed in 24 peri-urban households and observed for the specified period, and Additional potentials of such stoves to other prospective users. The key finding of this research is that the use of these improved wood stoves could play a pivital role in household economic growth and improving livelihoods. Participants ranked smokeless burning, low selling price, fuelwood saving and light weight of the stoves as priority preferences for using these stoves. Speed of cooking and less constant attention to the fire were also ranked as important preferences. From women participants view point, the low selling price of the stoves and their considerable fuel saving would reduce strain on the household investment capital, household indoor pollution and tedious work of women’s fuelwood collection. Low investment costs in acquiring the stoves would encourage women’s participation as entrepreneurs in modern energy technologies. However, results from focused group discussions and observations of usage of stoves that were placed in 24 homes showed that the incorporation of consumer preferences in the design of improved wood stoves would be key. This would enable stoves to adequately meet the energy needs of targeted users and be used frequently as an alternative energy solution by both urban and peri-urban poor who are currently lacking electricity and suffering from energy poverty. / Thesis (M.Soc.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermarizburg, 2009.