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No / One of the most inimical ways to debase a people is to declare them cannibals - eaters of their own kind. The association between cannibalism and immorality, depravity, and base iniquity has contributed to the long-term interest in the behaviour. It has become a commonplace pejorative applied to exotic peoples, enemies, and strangers - sometimes and, more innocuously perhaps, to titillate fascination and, more sinisterly and more often, to dehumanise another group. Tuzin (1983, 62) characterises the Ilahita Arapesh's (of northeastern New Guinea) attitude towards the cannibalism of the downstream Sepik, "... as an amused, faintly condescending interest that is morally neutral in tone...'and that those who engage in such consumption are described as an 'another kind of man'. The apparent relativism of this statement, although lacking in obvious contempt or fear, provides the basis upon which difference could be accentuated to justify actions at another time or under different circumstances. The use of the term 'cannibalism' among both Europeans and non-Europeans (see Strathern 1982, Rumsey 1999) to make a people less than human - with real social and political consequences for those so-labeled - prompted Arens (1979) to deny that the behaviour had ever been practised. Others have argued that it did occur upon occasion in a number of circumstances and for a variety of reasons.

Yes / Objective: This research introduces ‘The Bioarchaeology of Disability’ (BoD), a population-scale approach which allows for a comprehensive understanding of disability in past communities through a combination of palaeopathological, funerary, and documentary analyses. Methods: The BoD consists of three phases: 1) Contextualisation includes period-specific literature review; 2) Data collection consists of palaeopathological re-analysis of individuals with physical impairment and collation of mortuary treatment data; and 3) Analysis incorporates qualitative and quantitative comparison of the funerary treatment of individuals with and without physical impairment to explore contemporary perceptions of disability. Materials: The BoD is demonstrated through a case study investigation of disability in later Anglo-Saxon England (c.8th-11th centuries AD) which included four burial populations (Ntotal=1,543; Nimpaired=28). Results: Individuals with disability could be buried with normative or non-normative treatment (e.g., stone/clay inclusions, non-normative body positioning), and in marginal, non-marginal, and central locations. Conclusions: The overall funerary variation for individuals with disability was relatively slight, which may suggest that political and religious factors were influencing normative funerary treatment of disabled individuals. The funerary variability that was observed in disabled individuals was probably influenced by individual and community-specific beliefs. Significance: This research describes a population-scale approach to archaeological disability studies that can be replicated in other archaeological contexts. Limitations: Individuals with non-skeletal physical impairment (e.g., soft tissue, mental) cannot be analysed osteologically and are not considered by the BoD. Suggestions for further research: The BoD should be applied to different archaeological communities around the world to better understand disability in the past. / This work was supported by the Society for Church Archaeology who awarded a Research Grant to the lead author which funded analysis of the Priory Orchard and St. Peter’s Church collections. Research trips were also funded by the University of Bradford, School of Archaeological and Forensic Sciences’ research funds for PhD students.

Yes

The thesis explores burial practices across all three phases (early, middle and late) of the Anglo-Saxon period (c.450–1066 AD) in Norfolk and the relationship with the identity of the deceased. It is argued that despite the plethora of research that there are few studies that address all three phases and despite acknowledgement that regional variation existed, fewer do so within the context of a single locality. By looking across the whole Anglo-Saxon period, in one locality, this research identified that subtler changes in burial practices were visible. Previous research has tended to separate the cremation and inhumation rites. This research has shown that in Norfolk the use of the two rites may have been related and used to convey aspects of identity and / or social position, from a similar or opposing perspective, possibly relating to a pre-Christian belief system. This thesis stresses the importance of establishing biological identity through osteological analysis and in comparing biological identity with the funerary evidence. Burial practices were related to the biological identity of the deceased across the three periods and within the different site types, but the less common burial practices had the greatest associations with the biological identity of the deceased, presumably to convey social role or status. Whilst the inclusion of grave-goods created the early Anglo-Saxon burial tableau, a later burial tableau was created using the grave and / or the position of the body and an increasing connection between the biological and the social identity of the deceased, noted throughout the Anglo-Saxon period in Norfolk, corresponds with the timeline of the religious transition.

This dissertation presents an analysis of Preclassic period (1000 B.C. – A.D. 250) funerary attributes of three Maya sites in northern Belize, Central America: Colha, Cuello, and K’axob. The dataset is comprised of 133 interments from Colha, 131 interments from Cuello, and 98 interments from K’axob for a total of 362 Preclassic interments. Analysis has been conducted on a suite of 12 variables representative of this dataset and their interrelatedness: age, sex, artifact material type, artifact material form, cranial orientation, burial position or posture, functional designation of architecture in which an interment is placed, presence or absence of indications of burning, presence or absence of red mineral pigmentation, functional designation of artifacts, presence or absence of a cross motif, and presence or absence of a head cover (vessel covering the cranium). This research project has four main objectives: 1) provide a structured presentation of Preclassic interment data for Colha, Cuello, and K’axob, 2) present a thorough and cogent analysis of the interrelatedness of the suite of variables abovementioned, 3) document any significant trends and anomalies that are evidenced within the funerary attributes of these sites, and finally 4) to offer an interpretation of those patterns and deviations seen within the analysis as they relate to intrasite and intersite social differentiation and dynamics through the Preclassic. The analysis within this volume demonstrates that the elaboration and variation of interment attributes increase over time in Preclassic at the three sites of study. This is paralleled by a development of ritual and ceremonial architecture for public activities. Differential access to materials and forms is indicated throughout the Middle, Late and Terminal Preclassic, with the level of disparity between the apparent elite and non-elite increasing over time. Adult males are generally accompanied by higher numbers and a greater variety of goods than are females and subadults. This indicates a power and/or status differential between the two sexes and age groups, with male adults being the most highly esteemed individuals within the social stratification system. This study demonstrates the dynamic and multifaceted material representations with which Preclassic Maya of Northern Belize expressed their identity in death. / text

Les rites funéraires pratiqués dans le royaume téménide et ses environs au cours de la période archaïque témoignent de l’usage de pratiques standardisées en lien avec de fortes croyances locales. Les nécropoles pouvaient regrouper un grand nombre de tombes dont le mobilier, souvent riche, était composé de différentes catégories d’objets tels que des vases, des pièces d’armement, des parures, et des miniatures. Des ornements en feuille d’or couvraient les vêtements des défunts et pouvaient orner certains objets. Dans le cas des tombes les plus riches, des masques en or étaient présents. En analysant les informations publiées, nous pouvons mettre en évidence des assemblages d’objets, des thèmes récurrents ainsi que des caractéristiques communes à l’ensemble des nécropoles étudiées tout en soulignant les particularités de chaque site. / The funerary practices used in the Temenid kingdom during the archaic period testify of the use of standardized practices linked to strong local beliefs in the afterlife. In some cases, cemeteries could be particularly vast, and display a variety of funerary artefacts, often richly ornated, like vases, weaponry, jewellery and miniature objects. The wealthiest tombs could also contain funerary masks. If we analyze the data that has been published, it is possible to determine patterns in the selection of objects, recurrent iconographical themes as well as common features linking together these different cemeteries. It is also possible to determine local characteristics present in each site.

The cemetery of Valsgärde, Sweden contains 92 human graves dating from the 3rdc. BCE to the 11thc. CE, the majority and most elaborate of which date to the Vendel and Viking Ages (approximately 500-1100 CE). This total consists of 15 unburnt boat graves, 15 inhumation and chamber graves, and 62 cremations. In addition to the human remains and wealthy goods, the site is noted for its richness in zooarchaeological material, with a variety of primarily domestic animals appearing buried alongside humans. One of the most commonly represented animals in these graves is the domestic dog (Canis familiaris), a trend which has been noted in many other sites from Vendel and Viking Age Sweden. This project quantifies and analyses the morphology of the dogs in the unburnt Vendel and Viking graves at Valsgärde in order to a) assemble a general typology and demographic profile for the population, b) assess the level of morphological variability in the population, and c) speculate on the possible roles these dogs may have played in Scandinavian society in the Late Iron Age. Comparisons are made between the character of dog burials in the Vendel vs Viking periods, to identify any notable shifts in trend over time. The analysis shows that while the size of the dogs generally remains consistent throughout both periods, a number of different types are represented within this limited size range, and the Viking Age burials contain notably fewer dogs than the graves of the Vendel Period.

Until recently, individuals with physical impairment have been overlooked within the field of archaeology due to the controversy surrounding the topics of disability and care in the past. The current research adds to the growing body of archaeological disability studies with an exploration of physical impairment and the possibility of disability-related care in Anglo-Saxon England (5th-11th centuries AD), utilising palaeopathological, funerary, and documentary analyses. Palaeopathological analysis of 86 individuals with physical impairment from 19 Anglo-Saxon cemetery populations (nine early, five middle, and five later) was performed, and the possibility of disability-related care was explored for several individuals. The mortuary treatment data (e.g. grave orientation, body position, grave good inclusion) was gathered for the entire burial population at each site (N=3,646), and the funerary treatment of the individuals with and without physical impairment was compared statistically and qualitatively, both within and between the Anglo-Saxon periods. No obvious mortuary differentiation of individuals with physical impairment was observed, although several patterns were noted. In three early Anglo-Saxon cemeteries, spatial association between individuals with physical impairment, non-adults, and females was observed. Early Anglo-Saxon individuals with physical impairment were more frequently buried in marginal locations, and two such individuals were buried in isolation. In the middle and later Anglo-Saxon periods, the funerary treatment of individuals with physical impairment became less variable, they were less frequently buried in marginal locations, and at three middle Anglo-Saxon cemeteries, they were buried in association with socially significant features in the cemetery landscape. The provision of care to ensure survival was not necessary for a majority of the individuals with physical impairment, but several individuals (lower limb paralysis, mental impairment) may have received regular, long-term care. This research proposes that the decreasing variability of mortuary treatment of individuals with physical impairment observed throughout the Anglo-Saxon period suggests that more variable attitudes about disability existed both within and between early Anglo-Saxon communities, while the political, social, and religious unification starting in the middle Anglo-Saxon period may have led to the development of more standardised perceptions of disability in later Anglo-Saxon England.

Les pratiques funéraires sont, dans l’aire maya, étroitement associées aux ensembles résidentiels. La proximité entre les vivants et les morts y est donc maximale, l’espace quotidien étant tout à la fois un lieu d’habitat et un espace funéraire. Cela soulève un certain nombre de questions quant à la relation entre ces individus défunts et leurs descendants, interrogations encore renforcées par l’important degré de sélection qui semble s’exercer à l’endroit des morts. Les Groupes résidentiels sont, pour ces derniers, des lieux dont l’accès est restreint par un certain nombre de paramètres dont le plus important est sans nul doute le statut - situation complexité par l’existence de nombreuses nuances régionales.La présente étude comprend en premier lieu une discussion générale autour de la question des morts dans l’habitat, augmentée d’une discussion méthodologique approfondie concernant la fouille. Elle se poursuit avec la présentation des résultats de la fouille intensive de l’unité 5N6 de Naachtun (Guatemala), qui illustre concrètement le propos développé précédemment. Enfin, les données de différents sites sont confrontées pour mettre en évidence schémas récurrents et différences, puis discutées à la lumière de quelques exemples ethnographiques. / In the Maya area, funerary practices are tightly linked to residential spaces. The proximity between the living and the dead is, therefore, at its apex. This situation raises a number of questions regarding the relationship between these defunct and their living heirs, inter-rogations reinforced by the high selectivity that seems to affect the sample. The residential Groups appear to be restricted areas for the dead, places that only a selected few can access according to different parameters. Amongst these, status is certainly the most prominent. It is further complexified by the existence of regional variations.This study opens with a general approach that deals with the practice of burying the dead within the house, complete with an extensive methodological discussion. A presentation of the excavation results from Naachtun’s Unit 5N6 (Guatemala) follows to illustrate the foregoing. Finally, data from several sites are statistically compared to show similarities and differencies, then discussed in light of several ethnographical studies.