Peripheral sensitisation and central sensitisation are implicated in the development of neuropathic pain with neuroplasticity occurring at multiple levels of the pain pathway. Hypersensitivity of the spinothalamic tract has been described in neuropathic animal models of diabetes. Spinal dorsal horn neurones of diabetic rats exhibit abnormally high spontaneous firing, suggesting an imbalance between excitatory and inhibitory signals converging within this structure. GABAergic neurones within the spinal cord and thalamus are crucial for the transmission of painful stimuli to higher centres of the brain that are involved in pain perception. GABAA receptors (GABAARs) are an important target for many clinical drugs, and certain endogenous neurosteroids act as potent allosteric modulators of these receptors. A developmental change in the rate of exponential decay of GABAergic synaptic events has been observed in other types of neurones and this may be related in part to fluctuations in endogenous neurosteroid tone. The objective of this study was to investigate changes to inhibitory neurotransmission with development in three levels of the pain pathway and to explore potential mechanisms underlying diabetic neuropathy. The whole-cell patch-clamp technique was used on slices of neural tissue. Electrophysiological recordings were obtained from wild type mice between the ages of 6 and 80 days in lamina II of the spinal cord, the nucleus reticularis (nRT) of the thalamus and the cerebral cortex. Recordings were also obtained from mice with diabetic neuropathy (ob/ob and db/db) between the ages of 60 and 80 days. Neurosteroids and their precursors were employed along with compounds that prevented their activity at the GABAAR such as ?-cyclodextrin, which is a barrel-shaped cyclic oligosaccharide with a lipophilic interior that sequesters neurosteroids. Behavioural experiments were also performed using von Frey filaments and the tail flick test to examine mechanical and thermal nociception. Recordings from the spinal cord, the thalamus and the cerebral cortex revealed that the decay time of miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents are significantly reduced with development. The neurosteroids allopregnanolone and ganaxolone were significantly more effective in neurones from the older mice. In contrast, ?-cyclodextrin had significantly less effect in neurones from the older mice. In mature diabetic mice (ob/ob mice), the endogenous neurosteroid tone is reduced compared to control mice, but certain neurosteroid compounds have a greater effect on the GABAARs of these diabetic mice. In addition, the diabetic mice exhibit mechanical allodynia and hyperalgesia, which is responsive to exogenously applied neurosteroids. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that a dramatic reduction in endogenous neurosteroid tone occurs as development progresses and that this impacts on the exponential decay time of GABAergic mIPSCs within neurones of the pain pathway. The higher neurosteroid tone in the youngest mice may confer a degree of neural protection over the nervous system as it develops. The reduction of endogenous neurosteroid tone in diabetic mice may be associated with their hypersensitivity. It is possible that pregnane-derived neurosteroids may exert analgesic effects in pathological pain states by attempting to restore the physiological GABAergic inhibitory tone that is observed in immature animals.

GABA receptors type A (GABAAR) are ligand-gated ion channels permeable for chloride anions. In the mammalian brain they mediate most of the inhibitory transmission. Moreover, the dysfunctions of the GABA-mediated system result in many neurological disorders, including epilepsy, anxiety and depression. Neurosteroids are cholesterol metabolites interacting with a variety of membrane receptors and have a direct effect on neuronal excitability. The neurosteroids allo-pregnanolone (allo-PA) and pregnanolone (PA) are potent positive modulators of the GABAAR. The goal of this work is to establish a newly constructed application system and a calcium imaging method using the GCaMP sensor to examine the effects of PA on the activity of primary hippocampal cultures. In this work we validate the application system and test the GCaMP calcium sensor in vitro. Application of PA inhibited the spontaneous calcium peaks, which agrees with its known actions on the GABAAR. We discovered that the neurosteroid inhibitory effect on the neuronal network activity changes after repeated applications. The results suggest that there might be some compensatory actions on the GABAAR level during prolonged or repeated exposition to PA. Key words: GABAAR; neurosteroid; pregnanolone; allopregnanolone; calcium; GCaMP; inhibition

Les stratégies d'ingénierie du génome par recombinaison homologue basées sur la technologie CRISPR/Cas-9 ont été largement utilisées pour modifier la séquence de gènes chez C. elegans. Cependant, l'efficacité de sélection des animaux modifiés nécessite d'être améliorée. Nous avons développé un nouveau marqueur, le gène miniSOG, qui permet la contre-sélection des animaux non modifiés et que nous avons intégré dans une cassette de double sélection. Les animaux contenant la cassette HySOG sont d'abord sélectionnés pour leur résistance à un antibiotique, l'hygromycine B. HySOG est ensuite excisée et les modifications sont insérées au locus cible. Les souches recombinantes résistent à une exposition à la lumière bleue, qui tue les vers exprimant le gène miniSOG. Nous montrons que la méganucléase I-SceI peut être utilisée pour exciser HySOG et pour introduire des modifications dans la lignée germinale avec la même efficacité que la technologie CRISPR/Cas-9.Des technologies d'ingénierie du génome ont été utilisées pour étiqueter la sous-unité des GABAAR UNC-49 et pour analyser le rôle de MADD-4/Punctin, UNC-40/DCC et NLG-1/neurologine sur l'agrégation synaptique des GABAAR à la jonction neuromusculaire GABAergique. Nous montrons que MADD-4, une protéine de la matrice extracellulaire sécrétée par les motoneurones, est un nouveau ligand de NLG-1 et de UNC-40 et constitue un organisateur synaptique antérograde des synapses GABAergiques. D'abord, l'isoforme courte de MADD-4, MADD-4B, lie directement NLG-1 et assure sa localisation à la membrane post-synaptique. Ensuite, MADD-4B lie, recrute et active probablement le récepteur UNC-40, qui renforce l'interaction des GABAAR avec NLG-1. / CRISPR/Cas-9-based techniques have been widely used to engineer any gene in C. elegans by homologous recombination. However, the selective efficacy of engineered animals needs to be expanded. We have developed miniSOG as a counter-selection marker in a dual selection strategy. Animals containing the dual selection cassette HySOG are firstly selected by the resistance to the antibiotic hygromycin B. HySOG is then excised and customized gene modifications are inserted into target sites. Recombinant strains are selected based on the resistance to blue light exposure, which otherwise kills miniSOG expressing worms. We demonstrate that meganuclease I-SceI can be used to excise HySOG and to introduce gene modifications in C. elegans germline as efficiently as CRISPR/Cas-9. Genome-engineering techniques have been used to tag the GABAAR subunit UNC-49 with RFP and to analyze the role of MADD-4/Punctin, UNC-40/DCC and NLG-1/neuroligin on GABAARs clustering at GABAergic NMJs. We showed that MADD-4/Punctin, an extracellular matrix protein secreted by GABAergic neurons, is a new ligand of NLG-1/neuroligin and of UNC-40/DCC and functions as a central anterograde organizer of GABAergic synapses. First, the short isoform of MADD-4, MADD-4B directly binds NLG-1/neuroligin and localizes it in the post-synaptic membrane of GABAergic synapses. Second, MADD-4B binds, recruits and likely activates the netrin receptor UNC-40/DCC, which in turn promotes the interaction of GABAAR with NLG-1/neuroligin and its localization at the synapse.

La microscopie optique stochastique de reconstruction (STORM) contourne la limite de diffraction en enregistrant des signaux monomoléculaires spatialement et temporellement séparés, atteignant une résolution de ~10-40 nm. Dans mon étude, j'ai développé une stratégie d'imagerie et d'analyse de données dSTORM bicolore afin d'étudier l'ultrastructure des synapses inhibitrices mixtes. Mes résultats ont montré que les GlyRs, les GABAARs, la géphyrine et RIM1/2 présentent une organisation intra-synaptique hétérogène et forment des domaines sous-synaptiques (SSDs). Les GlyR et les GABAAR ne sont pas complètement mélangés, mais peuvent occuper des espaces différents à la densité post-synaptique (PSD). De plus, les SSD de géphyrine postsynaptique sont alignées avec les SSD de RIM1/2 pré-synaptiques, formant des nanocolonnes trans-synaptiques. Au cours d'une activité neuronale élevée par traitement 4-AP, la corrélation spatiale entre les GlyRs, les GABAARs et la géphyrine a augmentée au PSD. De plus, la corrélation spatiale des GlyRs et RIM1/2 a également augmenté, tandis que celle des GABAARs et RIM1/2 n'a pas changé. Le nombre de SSD par synapse pour ces protéines synaptiques n'est pas modifié par 4-AP. Cette étude fourni un nouvel angle de compréhension des mécanismes sous-jacents à la co-transmission GABAergique/glycinergique. / Stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (STORM) bypasses the diffraction limit by recording spatially and temporally separated single molecule signals, achieving a resolution of ~10-40 nm. In my study, I have developed a two-color dSTORM imaging and data analysis strategy, in order to investigate the ultrastructure of mixed inhibitory synapses. My results show that GlyRs, GABAARs, gephyrin and RIM1/2 exhibit a heterogeneous intra-synaptic organization and form sub-synaptic domains (SSDs). GlyRs and GABAARs were not fully intermingled, but sometimes occupied different spaces at the post-synaptic density (PSD). In addition, post-synaptic gephyrin SSDs were aligned with pre-synaptic RIM1/2 SSDs, forming trans-synaptic nanocolumns. During elevated neuronal activity by 4-AP treatment, the spatial correlation between GlyRs, GABAARs and gephyrin was increased at the PSD. Moreover, the spatial correlation of GlyRs and RIM1/2 was also increased, while that of GABAARs and RIM1/2 did not change. The number of SSDs per synapse for these synaptic proteins was not changed by 4-AP. My study thus provides a new angle for understanding the mechanisms underlying GABAergic/glycinergic co-transmission.