This study investigated the feasibility of oxidative modification with glucose oxidase (GluOx) to enhance the rheological and gelling properties of myofibrillar protein. Differential oxidative modifications of myofibrillar protein (MP) by hydroxyl radicals generated in an enzymatic system with glucose oxidase (GluOx) in the presence of glucose/FeSO4 compared to a Fenton system (H2O2/FeSO4) were investigated. Firmer and more elastic MP gels were produced by the GluOx-oxidizing system than by the Fenton system at comparable H2O2 levels due to an altered radical reaction pathway. The study further explored the effect of GluOx-mediated oxidation on the efficacy of transglutaminase (TGase) cross-linking of MP in 0.6 M NaCl and the rheological properties of GluOx oxidation/TGase treated MP in MP–lipid emulsion composite gels. The GluOx-mediated oxidation promoted the formation of both soluble and insoluble protein aggregates via disulfide bonds and occlusions of hydrophobic groups. The subsequent TGase treatment converted protein aggregates into highly cross-linked polymers. MP–lipid emulsion composite gels formed with such polymers exhibited markedly enhanced gelling capacity: up to a 4.4-fold increase in gel firmness and a 3.5-fold increase in gel elasticity over untreated protein. Microstructural examination showed small oil droplets dispersed in a densely packed gel matrix when MP was oxidatively modified, and the TGase treatment further contributed to such packing. Comparison of the modification of MP via GluOx oxidation/TGase cross-linking pathway under different salt concentrations (0.3 and 0.6 M NaCl) showed different patterns of MP cross-linking, resulting in different extents of aggregation. Under low-salt condition (0.3 M NaCl), the GluOx/TGase treatment increased the gel strength to the same level as those treated with TGase in 0.6 M NaCl, suggesting a potential application of GluOx/TGase for improving gel strength in low ionic strength conditions. Finally, the application of GluOx oxidation in the development of emulsion-type sausages was studied. The GluOx oxidation/TGase cross-linking improved the textural properties (firmness, chewiness, and rupture force) of emulsion-type sausages under both salt levels (P < 0.05). Under low-salt condition (1.5% NaCl), GluOx/TGase treatment can increase the sausage binding strength to the same level as the control sample under high-salt condition (3% NaCl). The GluOx oxidation/TGase treatment shows promise to improve the textural properties of emulsified meat products. However, the significant decrease of a* value and increase of b* value indicated GluOx-induced color deterioration.

Ces travaux ont été réalisés dans le cadre d’un projet industriel avec l’entreprise Roxel visant à la substitution de la résine phénolique, impactée par la règlementation Reach, dans un matériau composite expansé : le Roxalte®. Ce matériau est composé d’un feutre de basalte imprégné de résine phénolique qui s’expanse sous l’effet de la température par l’action de microsphères expansibles contenu dans le mélange (Expancel®). Pour s’adapter aux différentes utilisations du Roxalte®, des systèmes époxy répondant aux exigences de Reach ont été sélectionnés. Le premier objectif de cette thèse est la substitution de la résine phénolique. Le second objectif est de fournir une méthodologie pour la réalisation de mousses. La caractérisation physicochimique de la résine phénolique ainsi qu’une étude des relations structure/propriétés ont orienté la sélection vers un système faisant état de très hautes Tg : le Tris(4-hydroxyphenyl) methane triglycidyl ether (TETM) allié au durcisseur amine diaminodiphénylsulfone (DDS). La solution de remplacement immédiate a alors consisté à utiliser le système époxy [TETM/DDS] ainsi qu’un grade d’Expancel® adapté à l’intervalle de polymérisation de la résine. L’optimisation du cycle de réticulation a permis d’atteindre une Tg égale à 330 °C. La seconde étape a consisté à optimiser le moussage en calant la cinétique de réticulation sur la cinétique d’expansion par la détermination des temps de gel du système époxy et des temps d’expansion des microsphères. En dernier lieu, le composite expansé a été mis en œuvre grâce à l’ajout de solvant non réactif (acétone). Le deuxième volet de ces travaux a porté sur l’étude du moussage en utilisant le bicarbonate de sodium (BS) comme agent gonflant. La dualité exothermique/endothermique du procédé (exothermie de la réticulation et endothermie de la décomposition du BS) a été étudiée. Des suivis cinétique en mode isothermes et anisotermes ont été réalisés sur deux systèmes époxy (TETM/DDS et TETM/IPDA), sur le BS et sur les mélanges TETM/DDS+BS et TETM/IPDA+BS. L’ajout de fibres de basalte a fait état de différence notable sur la morphologie des mousses à base des systèmes époxy et du BS et les phénomènes de coalescence des bulles et de diffusion du gaz ont été mis en évidence. Une meilleure répartition des fibres et des bulles avec le système [TETM/IPDA] a été observé. / This work was performed within the framework of an industrial project of Roxel company. The project aim was the substitution of phenolic resin in an expanded composite material: the Roxalte®. This material is made of basalt mat impregnated by phenolic resin which expands under heating by the action of expandable microspheres (Expancel®). The second objective of this work is to provide a methodology for foaming optimization. REACH compliant epoxy resins were selected as substitute. Our choice was guided by the physical-chemical characterization of phenolic resin and the study of structure-property relationship. A high glass transition temperature system has been selected: the Tris(4-hydroxyphenyl)methane triglycidyl ether (TETM) with amine hardener diaminodiphenylsulfone (DDS). The immediate alternative solution consisted of epoxy system [TETM/DDS] and appropriate Expancel® microspheres. The microspheres have been chosen according to the curing temperature interval of the resin. The curing process optimization has been achieved and a Tg equal to 330 °C has been reached. Then the temperature that leads to equilibrium between the microsphere’s foaming kinetic and the resin gelation kinetic has been determined. The second part of this work deals with the study of foaming process using sodium bicarbonate (SB) as foaming agent. The exothermic-endothermic duality of the process (exothermicity of polymerization and endothermicity of SB decomposition) has been studied. Reaction kinetics of epoxy resins (TETM/DDS and TETM/IPDA), SB and mixes (TETM/DDS+BS and TETM/IPDA+BS) have been followed in isothermal and non-isothermal modes. Morphologies differences between TETM/DDS+BS and TETM/IPDA+BS systems and coalescence and diffusion phenomena have been observed when basalt fibers was added. Improved fibers distribution in TETM/IPDA system have been revealed.

L’incorporation de silice, obtenue par un procédé de précipitation en milieu aqueux, à la bande de roulement des pneumatiques a permis d’en réduire significativement la résistance au roulement et par conséquent, l’impact environnemental. L’efficacité de la silice précipitée en tant que charge de renfort est liée à la présence d’agrégats nanométriques au sein de ce matériau et à son interaction avec l’élastomère du pneumatique. La maîtrise de la morphologie des agrégats est donc un levier pour le développement de silices plus performantes. Dans ce contexte, la présente étude porte sur le développement d’un modèle prédictif de la formation de l’agrégat de silice au cours de la précipitation. Un suivi par turbidimétrie en ligne et par DLS a permis d’illustrer l’influence critique des paramètres de synthèse sur la cinétique d’agrégation. Un modèle optique basé sur les propriétés diffusantes des objets fractals a été développé pour extraire des informations morphologiques sur l’agrégat au cours de sa construction à partir des spectres de turbidité expérimentaux. Les résultats semblent indiquer une densification de la structure au fur et à mesure que se déroule l’agrégation. Les analyses de porosimétrie azote et mercure menées sur les produits finaux, obtenus après séchage, ont quant à elles mis en évidence des différences texturales qui ont pu être mises en lien avec la cinétique d’agrégation. L’ensemble de ces informations a été repris dans un bilan de population permettant de traiter à la fois la croissance et l’agrégation des particules de silice ainsi que de simuler les propriétés optiques de la suspension. / Tires manufactured with precipitated silica instead of carbon black present a significantly lower rolling resistance and are therefore more environmentally friendly. Existence of nanometric aggregates inside the precipitated silica is responsible for its efficiency as a reinforcing filler. This level of structure deeply affects the quality of the interactions between silica and the rubber of the tire tread. Gaining control over the morphology of the aggregates could thus be a way to produce silica even more suited to this application.The aim of the present study is to develop a theoretical model able to predict the formation of silica aggregates during the precipitation process. Critical influence of the synthesis parameters on the aggregation kinetics were evidenced by DLS and online turbidimetry measurements. Morphological parameters of the expanding aggregates could be extracted from the experimental turbidity spectra thanks to a fractal scattering optical model. The observed trend suggested a densification of the aggregates over time. Nitrogen and mercury porosimetry analyses were carried out on the dried powders obtained at the end of the precipitation. Differences between the characterized samples could be related to the variations in their aggregation kinetics. Finally, a population balance model was developed. A specific feature of our model is that it is able to take into account both growth and aggregation of silica particles as well as to simulate their optical properties.

Des simulations de dynamique moléculaire sont utilisées pour étudier le rôle sur le ralentissement de la dynamique dans certaines dispersions colloïdales des caractéristiques des potentiels d’interaction à courte portée entre solutés. La variation avec les paramètres physiques du coefficient de diffusion utilisé comme indicateur du ralentissement de la dynamique est comparée avec celle du temps de vie des paires afin de tester l’interprétation généralement avancée de la gélification par la formation de liaisons à longue durée de vie entre les colloïdes. Deux modèles simples ont d’abord été considérés : un potentiel standard constitué d’une répulsion et d’une attraction à courte portée et un potentiel avec une barrière répulsive après le premier puits. Pour les modèles standard, sans barrière, un comportement universel de la dynamique, déterminé par le second coefficient du viriel a été montré. Ceci est observé aussi bien sur la diffusivité que sur la durée de vie des paires de particules, à condition qu’une définition commune de la distance de liaison soit prise lors de la comparaison des différents potentiels. En présence de barrière, la diffusivité dépend également d’autres caractéristiques de l’interaction comme le rapport des amplitudes du puits et de la barrière. L’effet de celle-ci renforce à la fois le piégeage dans le puits et l’effet stérique à une distance supérieure au diamètre du coeur. En doublant sa hauteur, la durée de vie augmente presque par un ordre de grandeur. Dans tous les cas, la durée de vie des liaisons dépend peu de la densité, contrairement au coefficient de diffusion. Ce comportement différent du temps de vie des liaisons et de la diffusivité montre les limites d’une interprétation littérale du ralentissement de la dynamique à faible ou moyenne densité, en terme de liaison de paires à longue durée de vie entre les particules. Les prédictions tirées de ces potentiels génériques ont ensuite été testées sur des potentiels effectifs calculés à partir des équations intégrales pour des mélanges binaires dissymétriques. La complexité du comportement dynamique résultant du caractère oscillatoire du potentiel est alors illustrée notamment par le comportement du nombre de paires en fonction de l’intervalle de "liaison" considéré. Le rôle au niveau de la dynamique d’interactions résiduelles a ensuite été étudié à partir du potentiel de Yukawa attractif, souvent utilisé pour modéliser une force attractive de courte portée résultant des recouvrements des couches superficielles des solutés, et du potentiel de Yukawa répulsif, pouvant correspondre à des interactions coulombiennes à très courte longueur d’écran. Nous avons alors montré l’impact important de ces interactions sur les lignes de transitions de non-ergodicité. L’analyse des situations où le ralentissement de la dynamique concerne les deux composants du mélange, avec les développements méthodologiques requis, est finalement soulignée comme une voie possible de poursuite de ce travail. / Molecular dynamics simulations are used to investigate the role on the slowing down of the dynamics in certain colloidal dispersions of some characteristics of the short-range interaction potentials between the solutes. The variation with the physical parameters of the diffusion coefficient used as an indicator of the slowing down of the dynamics is compared with that of the bond lifetime of particle pairs in order to test the usual interpretation of gelation by par the formation of long-lived bonds between the colloidal particles. Two simple models were first considered: a standard potential with a repulsive part and a short-range attraction, and a model with a repulsive barrier after the well. For standard models, without barrier, a universal behaviour of the dynamics, governed by the second virial coefficient has been shown. This has been observed both for the diffusivity and the bond lifetime of particle pairs, provided that a common definition of the bonding length is used when comparing different potentials. In the presence of barriers, the diffusivity depends also on other characteristics of the interaction, such as the ratio of the well and barrier amplitudes. The effect of the barrier reinforces both the bonding in the well and the steric effect at a separation larger than the core diameter. Doubling its height increases the lifetime almost by an order of magnitude. In all cases the bond lifetime depends weakly on density in contrast with the diffusion coefficient. This different behaviours of diffusivity and bond lifetime shows the limits of a literal interpretation of the slowing down of the dynamics by the formation of long-lived bonds between particle pairs. The predictions relative to these generic potentials were next tested on the effective potentials computed from the integral equations for asymmetric binary mixtures. The complexity of the dynamics arising from the oscillatory nature of the potential is then illustrated by the behaviour of the number of pairs, depending on the bonding range being considered. The influence on the dynamics of residual interactions was next investigated from the attractive Yukawa potential, often used to model an attractive interaction arising from the overlap of the surface layers of the solutes potential and the repulsive Yukawa one, possibly modelling Coulomb interactions with very short screening length. We so showed the importance of such residual interactions on the non-ergodicity transition lines. The analysis of the situations in which the slowing down of the dynamics involves both components of the mixture, with the required methodological developments, is finally pointed out as a possible continuation of this work.

In this study the heat-induced gelation of two (readily available) proteins, which contain disulphide bonds, has been investigated over a range of protein concentrations in the presence and absence of the presence of the reductant, dithiothreitol at neutral pH. The proteins selected in this study were: β-Lactoglobulin and bovine serum albumin. These proteins have different number of disulphide bonds and possess different protein secondary structures. The influences of the reductant and protein concentration on their heat-induced gelation were explored to see whether the proteins were able to form protein hydrogels and that the mechanical properties of the resulting protein hydrogels were controllable. The tilting test tube method revealed that both proteins formed macroscopic hydrogels, at protein concentrations above the critical gelation concentration and that the critical gelation concentration was constantly lower in the presence of the reductant. Micro-DSC revealed that both proteins had completely denatured upon heating and that the denaturation temperature and enthalpy were significantly lower in the presence of the reductant. IR spectroscopy revealed that both proteins undergo major secondary structure transitions that resulted in the formation of fibers that are rich in β-sheet structure upon heating and that the protein lost some secondary structure before any heating and gained more β-sheet structure in the presence of the reductant. Both proteins had partially denatured before any heating in the presence of the reductant and that β-LG underwent aggregation that was accompanied by the loss of native β-sheet structure and the formation of intermolecular β-sheet structure, while that BSA underwent aggregation that was accompanied by the loss of native α-helix structure and the formation of intermolecular β-sheet structure. Cryo-TEM revealed that both proteins formed fibers (10 nm in diameter) that exist as single entities at low protein concentrations and become entangled into macroscopic networks, at protein concentrations above the critical gelation concentration and that more fibers and denser macroscopic networks were formed in the presence of the reductant. Oscillatory rheology revealed that both proteins formed macroscopic networks exhibit viscoelastic behaviour and that their elastic modulus had increased in the presence of the reductant and with increasing protein concentration.

Orientador: Carlos Raimundo Ferreira Grosso / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia de Alimentos / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-22T05:50:23Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Almeida_TalitaEmanuelaMeloe_M.pdf: 2060488 bytes, checksum: 4adc0b3a48b5ba83103d990622a1286a (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013 / Resumo: Este estudo teve como objetivo a produção de micropartículas por técnicas combinadas de gelificação iônica e interação eletrostática utilizando alginato de sódio, concentrado proteico do soro do leite (WPC) e manteiga fundida para imobilização do micro-organismo Erwinia sp. D12 e avaliação da conversão de sacarose em isomaltulose por células íntegras livres e imobilizadas em processo descontínuo durante quatro dias. No estudo preliminar, os biopolímeros alginato de sódio e WPC foram caracterizados para produção de micropartículas com boas propriedades. A análise da carga elétrica disponível de alginato de sódio em solução ou emulsão com diferentes concentrações de manteiga fundida e das proteínas do WPC em solução indicou que em uma faixa de pH de 3,0 - 4,5 pode ocorrer uma interação de natureza eletrostática entre os biopolímeros. Misturas formadas em diferentes proporções entre emulsão de alginato de sódio com diferentes concentrações de manteiga fundida e solução proteica de WPC foram caracterizadas com relação à carga elétrica e tamanho médio dos coacervados insolúveis formados. Maiores tamanhos de coacervados, variando entre 29,12 µm a 33,72 µm, foram obtidos na proporção volumétrica 1:6 (emulsão de alginato e manteiga fundida:WPC) sendo que a adição de diferentes concentrações de manteiga fundida não modificou o tamanho dos coacervados formados. As micropartículas de alginato contendo manteiga fundida foram preparadas pela técnica de gelificação iônica associado com recobrimento, por interação eletrostática, com solução de WPC em diferentes concentrações e em seguida foi avaliada a adsorção proteica sobre as micropartículas em sistemas diluídos e concentrados. Um aumento da adsorção proteica pôde ser observado com o aumento da concentração de proteína em solução e diminuição da concentração de manteiga adicionada. Utilizando-se solução de WPC na concentração de 4% (m/m) foram obtidas maiores quantidades de proteínas adsorvidas sobre as micropartículas com taxas de adsorção variando de 44,35% para micropartículas com baixo nível de manteiga fundida, de 37,58% para micropartículas contendo nível intermediário de manteiga e de 30,61% para micropartículas contendo alto nível de manteiga. Micropartículas com elevado teor de umidade, conteúdo proteico acima de 30% e tamanho variando entre 130,0 µm a 161,5 µm puderam ser produzidas pela técnica de gelificação iônica com posterior recobrimento, por interação eletrostática, com solução 4% (m/m) de WPC. A partir do estudo preliminar, as micropartículas com os diferentes tratamentos foram estudadas para imobilização celular do micro-organismo Erwinia sp. D12 com uma contagem inicial de 108-107 UFC/mL e atividade enzimática de 10,7 U/mL. A incorporação de diferentes concentrações de manteiga fundida modificou a atividade enzimática do micro-organismo encapsulado sendo que uma maior adição de manteiga fundida (2%, m/m) acarretou em uma maior atividade enzimática (17,68 U/mL). O tamanho médio das micropartículas sem recobrimento variou entre 91,54 ¿ 106,52 µm sendo observado um aumento no tamanho, 118,34 ¿ 143,12 µm, após o recobrimento. Células íntegras na forma livre e imobilizadas com os diferentes tratamentos foram avaliadas com relação à conversão de sacarose em isomaltulose em processo descontínuo durante quatro dias. Maiores taxas de conversão foram obtidas no primeiro dia de análise empregando células livres ou imobilizadas com os diferentes tratamentos. A taxa de conversão diminuiu no decorrer dos dias, em todos os tratamentos, sendo observada uma queda mais acentuada na conversão utilizando células íntegras livres. As maiores médias aritméticas de conversão de sacarose em isomaltulose foram alcançadas por micropartículas de gelificação iônica sem adição de manteiga fundida e micropartículas de gelificação iônica adicionadas de 2% (m/m) de manteiga fundida, 33,77% e 35,12%, respectivamente, sem diferenças estatísticas entre as mesmas. O recobrimento adicional das micropartículas acarretou em uma diminuição na taxa de conversão devido provavelmente à diminuição no tamanho dos poros ou recobrimento total dos mesmos. Outra hipótese levantada está no pH utilizado para produção das micropartículas (pH 3,75) que encontra-se fora da faixa ótima de crescimento do micro-organismo. Os resultados indicam o potencial de emprego de células íntegras de Erwinia sp. D12 imobilizadas em hidrogel de alginato, sem recobrimento adicional das micropartículas, para conversão de sacarose em isomaltulose em processos descontínuos / Abstract: This study aimed to produce microparticles by combined techniques of electrostatic interaction and ionic gelation using sodium alginate, whey protein concentrated (WPC) and butter for immobilization of micro-organism Erwinia sp. D12 and evaluating the conversion of sucrose to isomaltulose by immobilized whole cells and free cells in a batch process during four days. In a preliminary study, biopolymers sodium alginate and WPC were characterized for production of microparticles having good properties. The analysis of electric charge available sodium alginate in solution or emulsion with different concentrations of butter and WPC solution indicated that in a pH range from 3.0 to 4.5 may occur electrostatic interactions between the biopolymers. Mixtures formed in different ratios emulsion of sodium alginate with different concentrations of butter and WPC solution were characterized with respect to size and load presented average coacervates insoluble formed. Larger coacervates sizes, ranging from 29.12 µm to 33.72 µm, were obtained in ratio 1:6 (emulsion alginate and butter: WPC) being that addition of different concentrations of butter not statistically change the size of coacervates formed. Alginate microparticles containing butter were prepared by ionic gelation associated with coating by electrostatic interaction with WPC at different concentrations and then the protein adsorption on the microparticles in dilute and concentrated was assessed. An increase in protein adsorption could be observed even in concentrated systems, with increasing concentration of protein in solution and decreased concentration of butter added. Using WPC solution at a concentration of 4% (w/w) were obtained larger quantities of proteins adsorbed on the microparticles with varying rates of adsorption of 44.35% for microparticles containing low level of butter , of 37.58% for microparticles containing intermediate level of butter and 30.61% for microparticles containing high level of butter. Microparticles content high moisture, protein content above 30% and size ranging from 130.0 µm to 161.5 µm could be produced by ionic gelation technique with subsequent coating by electrostatic interaction with solution 4% (w/w) WPC. From the preliminary study, the microparticles with different treatments were studied for cell immobilization of micro-organism Erwinia sp. D12 with an initial count of 108-107 CFU/mL and enzyme activity of 10.7 U/mL. The incorporation of different concentrations of butter modify the enzymatic activity of the encapsulated micro-organism being greater than the addition of butter (2%, w/w) resulted in an increased enzymatic activity (17.68 U/mL). The average size of uncoated microparticles ranged from 91.54 µm to 106.52 µm an increase in size was observed, 118.34 - 143.12 µm, after coating. The addition of different concentrations of butter not influence statistically the average size of microparticles. Whole cells in free form and immobilized with different treatments were evaluated for conversion of sucrose to isomaltulose in a batch process during four days. Higher rates of conversion of sucrose to isomaltulose were obtained on the first day of analysis using free cells or immobilized with the different treatments. The conversion rate decreased during the days, in all treatments, with a more pronounced decrease observed in conversion using free cells. The greatest average conversion of sucrose into isomaltulose were reached by microparticle ionic gelling without addition of butter and microparticles ionic gelling added 2% (w/w) of butter, 33.77% and 35.12% respectively, no statistical differences between them. The additional coating of microparticles by electrostatic interaction resulted in a decrease in conversion rate probably due to a reduction in pore size or full coating thereof. Another hypothesis is the pH used for production of microparticles, at pH 3.75, which is outside the optimum range for growth of the micro-organism. The results indicate the potential use of whole cells of Erwinia sp. D12 immobilized in alginate hydrogel without additional coating of microparticles for conversion of sucrose to isomaltulose in batch processes / Mestrado / Nutrição Experimental e Aplicada à Tecnologia de Alimentos / Mestra em Alimentos e Nutrição

The thesis is focused on physical hyaluronan gels. The object of study is the interaction of hyaluronan (HyA) with oppositely charged surfactants in physiologic solution (0.15 M NaCl), leading to the formation of gel. In the first part of work have been determined the solids´ contents (X) in gels and their supernatants in percentage and their correlation with molecular weight concentration of original HyA solution and the ratio of binding sites on hyaluronan chain and surfactant CTAB. To conclude, decrease in HyA concentration results in higher values of X and vice versa. On the other hand, increase in the value of X with increasing molecular weight of HyA is not so significant. Analogous conclusions have been made for supernatants and the amount of solids in gel. Drying process has been recorded by drying curves. Swelling process has been used for the characterization of gels. The percentage of water that can be absorbed by dried gel, was determined. The results are in agreement with the measurements of solids´ content in gels. In the next part, the correlation between rheological properties of gels and HyA concentration, HyA molecular weight and concentration of CTAB have been studied by the oscillation and flow tests. The samples with the highest molecular weight and concentration have the most viscoelastic character. The flow test confirmed the assumed pseudoplastic behavior of gels. A very interesting trend arose while comparing HyA concentrations and viscosity in stock solutions and gels. Whereas in stock solution viscosity (at low shear rate) is lower with increasing of HyA concentration, the situation was exactly the opposite in gels. The results are in agreement with frequency tests and observed character of gels.

This master's thesis deals with gelation of hydroxyethylcellulose and hyaluronan crosslinked with nontoxic crosslinking agent – citric acid. First of all, the optimalization of gelation process of hydroxyethylcellulose took place. After obtaining the product insolube in the ultrapure deionized water, a reaction mixture of hyaluronan and hydroxyethylcellulose in two different weight ratios were prepared. There was prepared solution containing only hyaluronan as the polymeric part too. Citric acid was used in concentrations of 5 %, 10 % and 20 % (w/w of polymer). These solutions of polymers and citric acid were gelated under the same conditions and the products were compared to each other using Differential Scanning Calorimetry, Thermogravimetry and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy. The products containing hydroxyethylcellulose and hyaluronan with hydroxyethylcellulose in weight ratio equal to 3 : 7 were considered crosslinked.

Microbial transglutaminase (mTGase) is an acyltransferase that predominantly catalyses the formation of covalent cross-links between protein-bound glutamine and lysine residues, referred to as isopeptide bonds. This typically results in protein polymerisation. The enzymatic polymerisation of caseins, the major protein fraction in milk, has been studied for decades because of its potential to modify physical properties of fermented dairy products. It was suggested that cross-linked caseins form denser gel networks, resulting in higher gel stiffness and increased water holding capacity. However, other studies indicated that there is an optimal cross-linking degree and that prolonged incubation with mTGase results in converse effects. The aim of this research was to elucidate the mechanisms that cause these alterations of the gelation properties. Using non-micellar casein preparations at 27 g·kg-1 protein as model systems, structure-function-interrelationships were studied by molecular characterisation in combination with rheological studies of acid-induced gels. The results suggested that casein molecules self-associate in aqueous solutions and that cross-linking occurs predominantly within distinct casein particles. These cross-links contributed directly to the stiffness of acid-induced gels as indicated by an increased maximum storage modulus. However, in the presence of ions, introduced either prior to or after cross-linking, the highest value was shifted to shorter incubation times. This was attributed to an increased inflexibility of the casein particles with ongoing internal cross-linking, which made them incapable of conformational changes to compensate for the screening of attractive electrostatic interactions through other non-covalent interactions. The findings provide important information for the direct application of mTGase in milk as well as on the utilisation of cross-linked caseinates as additives in food processing. Further studies should be conducted at casein concentrations below self-association as well as above close packing of casein particles to include other cross-linking mechanisms. Moreover, potential applications in the non-food sector should be ascertained.

>Magister Scientiae - MSc / Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), which is the cause of Acquired Immunodefiency Syndrome (AIDS) is a major global public health issue affecting over 37 million people worldwide and is responsible for claiming over 32 million lives since the discovery of the disease in 1981. Through effective diagnosis, treatment and prevention HIV is a manageable disease. Today, advanced antiretrovirals, known as HAART, serve as effective, first-line drug regimens, consisting of a variety of viral inhibitors, and have successfully helped viral suppression. However, issues arise with antiretrovirals due to patient non-adherence and the development of drug resistant mutations. Coupled with dormant HIV reservoirs, viral extinction is attenuated. It is therefore essential that effective alternative treatments are investigated. The exploration of nanomedicine for targeted drug delivery has shown an ability to prolong the drug circulation time, target drugs to specific sites in the body, and enhance drug effectiveness. A previous study demonstrated a novel therapeutic strategy that was based on a mutant version of the caspase-3 enzyme that can induce apoptosis in HIV infected cells. This therapeutic strategy has the potential to wipe out reservoirs of HIV infection. However, the therapeutic strategy lacked selectivity because the delivery mechanism was based on protein transduction technology which will result in the nonselective delivery of the drug. In this study, preliminary work towards the development of a targeted nanoparticle delivery system for this mutant caspase-3 enzyme is described. The study describes the synthesis of green fluorescent protein loaded alginate/chitosan nanoparticles that were functionalized with a DNA aptamer intended to target the nanoparticles to CD4 expressing cells, that are also targeted by HIV. The THP-1 cell line was used due to the ability of the cells to express CD4 receptors on the cell surface. The nanoparticles were synthesized through ionotropic gelation. The size, polydispersity, zeta potential and morphology were investigated by Dynamic Light Scattering and Scanning Electron Microscopy, respectively. The strongly negative zeta potential studies revealed stability of the nanoparticles in suspension and Scanning Electron Microscopy results showed an indicative collapse of the polymer network for the empty nanoparticles (i.e. nanoparticles not loaded with GFP), whereas solid, cuboid nanoparticles were shown for the GFP-loaded nanoparticles. Image-based fluorescence cytometry demonstrated that the GFP-loaded nanoparticles bind to the THP-1 cells that express the CD4 receptor. The results obtained are indicative of a potential drug delivery system for HIV treatment however, adjustments would need to be made to the current study to further develop this nanocarrier.