Insect herbivores often secrete glucose oxidase (GOX) onto plants to counteract plant defenses and potential pathogens. Whether generalist herbivores always have significantly higher GOX activities than their specialist counterparts at any comparable stage or conditions and how this is realized remain unknown. To address these two general questions, we subjected larvae of a pair of sister species differed mainly in host range, the generalist Helicoverpa armigera and its specialist counterpart Helicoverpa assulta, to the same sets of stage, protein to digestible carbohydrate (P:C) ratio, allelochemical or host plant treatments for simultaneous analyses of GOX transcripts and activities in their labial glands. GOX activity and transcripts are upregulated concurrently with food ingestion and body growth, downregulated with stopping ingestion and wandering for pupation in both species. The three tested host plants upregulated GOX transcripts, and to a lesser extent, GOX activity in both species. There were significant differences in both GOX transcripts and activity elicited by allelochemicals, but only in GOX transcripts by P:C ratios in both species. GOX activities were higher in H. armigera than H. assulta in all the comparable treatments, but GOX transcripts were significantly higher either in generalists or in specialists, depending on the developmental stages, host plants, P:C ratio and allelochemicals they encounter. These data indicate that the greater GOX activity in generalist herbivores is not achieved by greater transcription rate, but by greater transcript stability, greater translation rate, better enzyme stability and/or their combination.

No description available.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Popular wine styles prepared from fully-ripened, more mature grapes are characterized by intense fruitiness and varietal flavors. However, lengthy maturation of grapes in the vineyard does not only translate into higher flavor intensity but also into higher sugar levels, which, in turn, leads to wines with higher concentrations of alcohol. Excessive alcohol levels can compromise wine flavor and render wine unbalanced. This, along with health issues and anti-social behavior linked to high-risk alcohol consumption patterns, stricter legislation and increased tax rates associated with high-alcohol wines, have increased demand for wines with reduced alcohol concentrations, without loss of the intense fruity aromas. Although low-alcohol wines can be made using physical post-fermentation processes, such approaches are often expensive and can impact adversely on wine flavor. As an alternative strategy, yeast strains are being developed by several research groups to convert some of the grape sugars into metabolites other than ethanol. Based on promising results from previous preliminary work, this study focused on the development of an industrial Saccharomyces cerevisiae wine strain producing glucose oxidase (GOX; b-D-glucose:oxygen oxidoreductase, EC 1.1.3.4). GOX oxidizes b-D-glucose to D-glucono-d-lactone and gluconic acid (GA) extracellularly, thus preventing its entry into glycolysis, thereby diverting a portion of the sugar carbon away from ethanol. The GOX-encoding gene from the foodgrade fungus, Aspergillus niger was used to construct three cassettes (GOX1, GOX2 and GOX2LOX). In these gene cassettes, the A. niger GOX gene was placed under the regulation of the S. cerevisiae phosphoglycerate-kinase-1 gene promoter (PGK1P) and terminator (PGK1T ). To facilitate secretion, in GOX1 the yeast mating pheromone-factor a secretion signal (MFa1S) was fused to the GOX gene, and in GOX2 the native A. niger secretion signal of GOX was used. These gene cassettes were each integrated into the genome of two laboratory yeast strains (BY4742 and S1278b) and one industrial wine yeast strain (VIN13). An additional integration cassette, designated GOX2LOX, was constructed to knock out the IME1 gene in S. cerevisiae. In GOX2LOX, GOX2 was fused to a loxP cassette. VIN13-D1 was obtained by integrating a single copy of GOX2LOX into the IME1 locus. To generate an asporogenic, GOX-producing wine yeast, VIN13-D2 was created by sporulation, micromanipulation and re-diploidisation of VIN13-D1. Comparative analysis indicated that (i) GOX2 resulted in higher levels of extracellular glucose oxidase activity than GOX1; and that (ii) the levels of secreted glucose oxidase activity in the wine yeast transformants were sufficiently high to conduct follow-up small-scale wine fermentation trials. The wine yeast transformant, VIN13-D1 was evaluated under red and white experimental winemaking conditions. Results from this work indicated that glucose oxidase was produced and secreted by VIN13-D1 that dominated the fermentation to the end, but also that the enzyme was not highly active under the evaluated winemaking conditions. Consequently, no significant decrease in ethanol concentrations was observed in the wine made from VIN13-D1 when compared to that from VIN13. Wine samples were analyzed by Fourier transform-middle infrared spectrometry (FT-MIR) to determine the chemical composition and Gas chromatography with a flame ionization detector (GC-FID) to evaluate the concentrations of aroma compounds. The levels of gluconic acid were determined by enzymatic assays. Multivariate data analysis (PCA and PLS1-discrim) was applied to highlight significant differences between the wines made by VIN13 (wild-type) and VIN13- D1. Chemometric projections of the score plots for all results allowed insight into all significant variation up to three principal components (PCA) or PLS components, which showed very clearly that GA is a key factor in evaluating the effect of GOX in VIN13-D1 fermentation with regard to VIN13 fermentations. The VIN13- D1 effect manifestations were best shown on PLS1-discrim score plots that revealed that, of the restricted variable subsets the FT-MIR-compounds and GC-compounds yielded better results, with the GC-compounds displaying greater discriminability between cultivars and VIN13 / VIN13-D1. It can be concluded from these results that the greatest influence of VIN13-D1 produced wines could be observed in the aroma components, but, because there were also discriminability effects discernable in the FT-MIR-compounds, thus the flavor components were also affected. The activity of GOX in grape juice was further investigated in controlled small scale fermentations performed in a bio-reactor. It was confirmed that GOX is active under aerobic conditions, inactive under anaerobic conditions, and can be activated instantly when an anaerobic culture is switched to aerobic conditions (simulated micro-oxygenation). These fermentations showed that glucose oxidase is active in grape juice, and that oxygen play a key-role in the enzyme’s activation. Finally, it was shown with the help of a simplified model, that under ideal conditions, GOX secreted from VIN13-D1, can be employed to reduce the ethanol by a predefined concentration for the production of low alcohol wines. This work gives more insight into how to employ a GOX-producing wine yeast during winemaking and strongly suggests the use of micro-oxygenation to activate the enzyme in order to reduce available glucose, thereby diverting a portion of the sugar carbon away from ethanol production. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Gewilde wynstyle word dikwels gemaak van volryp, goed ontwikkelde druiwe, gekarakteriseer deur intense aromas en smaakkomponente wat direk met spesifike kultivars geassosieer word. ’n Nadelige gevolg om druiwe te lank aan die wingerdstok te laat bly hang sodat meer intense geurkomponente kan ontwikkel, is die toename in suikerinhoud. Hierdie addisionele suiker lei tot wyne met hoër alkoholvlakke. Te hoë alkoholvlakke kan wyn ongebalanseerd laat voorkom en die smaak nadelig beïnvloed. Dit, tesame met gesondheidsredes en anti-sosiale gedrag wat gekoppel kan word aan die inname van te veel alkohol, strenger wetgewing aangaande dronkbestuur en die toename in belasting op wyne met ’n hoër alkoholinhoud, het aanleiding gegee tot ’n aanvraag vir wyn met ’n verlaagte alkoholinhoud, sonder dat aroma- en geurkomponente ingeboet word. Alhoewel daar sekere fisiese/gemeganiseerde prosesse beskikbaar is om die alkohol in wyn te verwyder of te verminder, is ’n nadeel dat hierdie prosesse baie duur en arbeidsintensief is, en dat dit deur sommige wynpuriste as te ingrypend in die ‘natuurlike’ proses van wynmaak beskou word. Sommige van hierdie alkoholverwyderingsprosesse kan ook die wyn se geur- en aromakomponente nadelig beïnvloed. As alternatief tot hierdie fisies-chemiese prosesse word wyngiste reg oor die wêreld deur verskillende navorsingsgroepe ontwikkel sodat van die druifsuikers nie na alkohol omgeskakel word nie, maar eerder ander metaboliete. Belowende navorsingsresultate in ’n voorafgaande studie het aanleiding gegee tot hierdie navorsingsprojek. In hierdie studie word daar klem gelê op die ontwikkeling, deur middel van genetiese manipulering, van ’n industriële wynras van Saccharomyces cerevisiae sodat dit in staat sal wees om glukose-oksidase (GOX; b-D-glukose:suurstof oksidoreduktase, EC 1.1.3.4) te produseer. GOX kan reeds b-D-glukose in die medium oksideer na glukoonsuur (GA), wat sodoende verhoed dat dit verder gemetaboliseer word via glukolise, en dit het tot gevolg dat ’n gedeelte van die beskikbare suiker nie omgeskakel word na alkohol nie. Die strukturele glukose-oksidase-geen (GOX) van die voedsel-gegradiëerde fungus, Aspergillus niger is gebruik tydens die konstruksie van drie kassette (GOX1, GOX2 en GOX2LOX). Binne hiedie geenkassette is A. niger se GOX-geen se transkripsieinisiëring en -terminering onafhanklik deur die fosfogliseraat-kinase-1-promotor (PGK1P) en termineerder (PGK1T ) bewerkstellig. Om uitskeiding van GOX uit die gis te bewerkstellig, is daar van die a-spesifieke gisferomoon-a-faktor (MFa1S) in GOX1 gebruik gemaak, en in GOX2, van A. niger se eie natuurlike sekresiesein. Hierdie geenkassette is binne-in die genoom van twee labaratoriumgisrasse van S. cerevisiae (BY4742 en S1278b) asook een industriële wyngisras (VIN13) geintegreer. ’n Addisionele integreringskasset (die sogenaamde GOX2LOX-kasset) is gemaak om die IME1-geen van S. cerevisiae te elimineer. Binne die GOX2LOXkasset is GOX2 aan ’n loxP-kasset gekoppel. Die nuwe wyngis VIN13-D1 is verkry deur ’n genomiese integrasie van GOX2LOX binne-in die IME1-lokus. Om die niesporulerende GOX-produserende wyngis VIN13-D2 te verkry, is VIN13-D1 gesporuleer, onderwerp aan mikromanipulasie en toegelaat om te herdiploidiseer. Ontledings het aangedui dat (i) GOX2 aanleiding gegee het tot hoër vlakke van ekstrasellulêre glukose-oksidase aktiwiteit in vergelyking met GOX1; en (ii) dat die vlakke van uitgeskeide biologies-aktiewe glukose-oksidase vir die wyngisrasse aansienlik hoër was. Dit het verdere kleinskaalse wynfermentasies geregverdig. Die getransformeerde wyngis VIN13-D1 is op eksperimentele skaal in die maak van rooi- en witwyn geëvalueer. Ontledings van hierdie eksperimentele wyne het daarop gedui dat glukose-oksidase deur die VIN13-D1-gisselle geproduseer en suksesvol uitgeskei tydens die wynmaakproses is, en dat VIN13-D1 die fermentasie gedomineer het en die alkoholiese gisting voltooi het. Resultate het egter ook aangedui dat die geproduseerde glukose-oksidase nie baie aktief was onder die wynmaaktoestande wat in hierdie eksperimentele wynmaakproses gegeld het nie, en gevolglik was daar nie ’n drastiese verlaging in die alkoholvlakke sigbaar toe VIN13-D1 se wyne met VIN13 se wyne vergelyk is nie. Wynmonsters is deur middel van Fourier-transformasie-mid-infrarooispektroskopie (FT-MIR) ontleed ten einde die chemiese samestelling te bepaal, en gaschromatografie-massaspektrometrie (GCMS) is aangewend om die wynaromakomponente te bepaal. Die vlakke van glukoonsuur is deur middel van ensiematiese reaksies bepaal. Multiveranderlike data-analise [hoofkomponentanalise (PCA) en parsiële kleinte kwadrate (PLS1) diskriminantanalise] is op die data van die verskeie analitiese tegnieke toegepas om onderliggende veskille tussen die wyne van VIN13 (wilde-tipe) en VIN13-D1 uit te wys. Chemometriese projeksies het aangetoon dat daar wel beduidende variasies sigbaar was tot en met drie hoofkomponente en/of PLS-komponente wat duidelik aandui dat glukoonsuur ’n sleutelfaktor was ten opsigte van die uitwerking wat GOX op VIN13-D1- fermentasies in vergelyking met VIN13-fermentasies. VIN13-D1 effek manifestasies is die beste waargeneem op grafieke wat PLS1-diskriminantanalise-data bevat. Verder het PLS1-diskriminantanalise ook aangetoon dat van die ‘groepe’ wat gebruik was tydens die analise, die FT-MIR-komponente en die GC-komponente beter resultate gelewer het. Die GC-komponente het hulle verder daartoe geleen om tussen die verskillende kultivars en VIN13/VIN13-D1-fermentasies te diskrimineer. Daar kan dus met sekerheid gesê word dat die grootste invloed in VIN13-D1 wyne sigbaar is in die aromakomponent, maar omdat daar wel ook variasies sigbaar was in die MIR-komponente, dat die smaakkomponente ook beïnvloed was. Die aktiwiteit van GOX in druiwesap is verder ondersoek deur gebruik te maak van kleinskaalse fermentasies in bioreaktors. Daar is bevestig dat die VIN13-D1- geproduseerde GOX biologies-aktief was tydens aerobiese kondisies, onaktief was tydens anaerobiese kondisies, en onmiddelik geaktiveer kon word wanneer ’n anaerobiese fermentasie aerobies gemaak word (gesimuleerde mikro-oksigenasie). Hierdie verskillende fermentasies dui daarop dat glukose-oksidase inderdaat aktief is in druiwesap, en dat suurstof ’n sleutelfaktor is tydens die aktivering van die ensiem. Met behulp van ’n vereenvoudigde model kon aangetoon word dat tydens ideale toestande dit wel moontlik is om die alkoholvlakke te verlaag na ’n voorafbepaalde konsentrasie vir die bereiding van lae-alkohol wyne. Hierdie studie verskaf verdere insig hoe om ’n GOX-produserende wyngis gedurende die wynmaakproses vir die verlaging van die alkoholvlakke te benut. Verder is dit duidelik dat suurstof van kardinale belang is vir die aktivering van die glukoseoksidase- ensiem en dat ’n tegniek soos mikro-oksigenasie ’n belangrike rol in hierdie verband tydens die wynmaakproses sou kon speel.

[ES] Las plantas están emergiendo como una alternativa atractiva a los sistemas convencionales de producción heteróloga, como bacterias, cultivos celulares de mamíferos, levaduras u hongos, para la síntesis de productos de alto valor, como metabolitos secundarios y proteínas. La demanda de estos productos a menudo se ve limitada por la capacidad de producción y los costos asociados. Sin embargo, utilizar las plantas como plataformas de producción ofrece ventajas en términos de accesibilidad económica, sostenibilidad, escalabilidad y la ausencia de patógenos humanos y de animales, lo que las convierte en una opción cada vez más atractiva. A pesar de las limitaciones en la capacidad de carga, la expresión génica transitoria utilizando vectores virales proporciona un método eficiente y reproducible para la producción de proteínas recombinantes en plantas, a diferencia de la transformación estable, que requiere más mano de obra y tiempo. Los vectores derivados del virus del mosaico del tabaco (TMV), particularmente aquellos en los que el gen de la proteína de la cubierta viral (CP) se reemplaza principalmente por el gen de interés, son clásicos en la biotecnología vegetal y se utilizan con frecuencia para la producción a gran escala de proteínas recombinantes. En este trabajo, nuestro primer objetivo fue optimizar un vector de TMV para mejorar la producción. La fusión traduccional del extremo amino-terminal de la CP del TMV con la proteína recombinante de interés mostró un aumento en la acumulación de la proteína verde fluorescente, interferón alfa-2a y un nanobody contra la proteína Spike del SARS-CoV-2 en hojas de Nicotiana benthamiana. La inserción de un sitio de clivaje específico, basado en las proteasas de inclusión nuclear (NIaPro) de dos potyvirus, junto con la expresión de las proteasas correspondientes, además de la producción de la proteína recombinante madura, aumentó aún más la acumulación de las proteínas recombinantes mencionadas anteriormente. En segundo lugar, nuestro objetivo fue establecer estrategias para producir proteínas recombinantes de interés industrial y farmacéutico en N. benthamiana utilizando un vector de TMV. Logramos producir grandes cantidades de una xilanasa termofílica, activa en condiciones extremas de temperatura y pH alcalino, en N. benthamiana utilizando un vector de TMV. La enzima que se acumuló rápidamente en los tejidos de la planta se dirigió al apoplasto, lo que facilitó enormemente la purificación y evitó cualquier efecto adverso en el crecimiento de la planta. Se demostró que esta enzima producida en planta es útil para la producción de xilooligosacáridos probióticos. También produjimos grandes cantidades de una glucosa oxidasa (GOX) modificada en hojas de N. benthamiana utilizando un vector de TMV. La GOX producida en planta, que también se purificó fácilmente a partir de fluidos apoplásticos, exhibió potentes propiedades antimicrobianas contra Staphylococcus aureus y Escherichia coli. / [CA] Les plantes están emergint com una alternativa atractiva als sistemes convencionals de producció heteròloga, com ara bacteries, cultius cel·lulars de mamífers, llevats o fongs, per a la síntesi de productes d'alt valor, com son metabòlits secundaris i proteïnes d'interés industrial i farmacéutic. La demanda d'aquests productes sovint es veu limitada per la capacitat de producció i els costos associats. No obstant això, utilitzar les plantes com a plataformes de producció ofereix avantatges en termes d'accessibilitat econòmica, sostenibilitat, escalabilitat i l'absència de patògens humans i animals, la qual cosa les converteix en una opció cada vegada més atractiva. Malgrat les limitacions en la capacitat de càrrega, l'expressió gènica transitoria mitjançant vectors virals proporciona un mètode eficient i reproducible per a la producció de proteïnes recombinants en plantes, a diferència de la transformació estable, que requereix més mà d'obra i temps. Els vectors derivats del virus del mosaic del tabac (TMV), particularment aquells en els quals el gen de la proteïna de la coberta viral (CP) és principalment reemplaçat pel gen d'interès, són clàssics en la biotecnologia vegetal i s'utilitzen sovint per a la producció a gran escala de proteïnes recombinants. En aquest treball, el nostre primer objectiu va ser optimitzar un vector de TMV per a millorar la producció. La fusió traduccional de l'extrem amino-terminal de la CP del TMV amb la proteïna recombinant d'interès va mostrar un augment en l'acumulació de la proteïna verda fluorescent, interferó alfa-2a i un nanobody contra la proteïna Spike del SARS-CoV-2 en fulles de Nicotiana benthamiana. La inserció d'un lloc de tall específic, basat en les proteases d'inclusió nuclear (NIaPro) de dos potivirus, juntament amb l'expressió de les proteases corresponents, a més de la producció de la proteïna recombinant madura, va augmentar encara més l'acumulació de les proteïnes recombinants esmentades anteriorment. En segon lloc, el nostre objectiu va ser establir estratègies per a produir proteïnes recombinants d'interés industrial i farmacèutic en N. benthamiana utilitzant un vector de TMV. Vam aconseguir produir grans quantitats d'una xilanasa termofílica, activa en condicions extremes de temperatura i pH alcalí, en N. benthamiana utilitzant un vector de TMV. El enzim que es va acumular ràpidament en els teixits de la planta es va dirigir a l'apoplast, la qual cosa va facilitar enormement la purificació i va evitar qualsevol efecte advers en el creixement de la planta. Es va demostrar que aquesta enzima produïda en planta és útil per a la producció de xilooligosacàrids probiòtics. També vam produir grans quantitats d'una glucosa oxidasa (GOX) modificada en fulles de N. benthamiana utilitzant un vector de TMV. La GOX produïda en planta, que també es va purificar fàcilment a partir de fluids apoplàstics, va exhibir potents propietats antimicrobianes contra Staphylococcus aureus i Escherichia coli. / [EN] Plants are emerging as an attractive alternative to conventional heterologous production systems, including bacteria, mammalian cell cultures, yeast, or fungi, for the synthesis of high-value products, such as secondary metabolites and proteins. The demand for these products is often limited by production capacity and associated costs. However, using plants as production platforms offers advantages in terms of affordability, sustainability, scalability, and the absence of human and livestock pathogens, making them an increasingly appealing choice. Despite limitations in cargo capacity, transient gene expression using viral vectors provides an efficient and reproducible method for producing recombinant proteins in plants, unlike stable transformation, which is more labor- intensive and time-consuming. Vectors derived from tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), particularly those in which the viral coat protein (CP) gene is mostly replaced with the gene of interest, are classic in plant biotechnology and frequently use for large-scale production of recombinant proteins. In this work, we first aimed to optimize a TMV vector to improve production. Translational fusion of the amino- terminal end of TMV CP to the recombinant protein of interest led to increased accumulation of the green fluorescent protein, interferon alfa-2a and a nanobody against the Spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 in Nicotiana benthamiana leaves. Insertion of a specific cleavage site, based on the nuclear inclusion a proteases (NIaPro) form two potyviruses, along expression of the cognate proteases led to, in addition to production of the mature recombinant protein, a further increase in the accumulation of the aforementioned recombinant proteins. Second, we aimed to set up strategies to produce recombinant proteins of industrial and pharmaceutical interest in N. benthamiana using a TMV vector. We successfully produced large amounts of a thermophilic xylanase, active under extreme temperature and alkaline pH conditions, in N.benthamiana using a TMV vector. The enzyme that accumulated rapidly in plant tissues was targeted the apoplast, which enormously facilitated purification, and avoided any adverse effect on plant growth. This plant-made enzyme was shown to be useful for the production of probiotic xylooligosaccharides. We also produced large amounts of an engineered glucose oxidase (GOX) in N. benthamiana leaves using a TMV vector. The plant-made GOX that was also easily purified from apoplastic fluids exhibited potent antimicrobial properties against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. / This work was supported Generalitat Valenciana, grant INNEST/2021/7 from Agència Valenciana de la Innovació, and by grant PID2020-114691RB-I00 from the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación, through the Agencia Estatal de Investigación (co-financed European Regional Development Fund), and by the Bio Based Industries Joint Undertaking, under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program (Project WOODZYMES, Grant Agreement H2020-BBI- JU-792070). M.N.-S. is the recipient of a predoctoral contract from the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (PRE2018-084771). / Nicolau Sanus, M. (2023). Production of Recombinant Proteins with Pharmaceutical and Industrial Applications in Plants Using a Tobacco Mosaic Virus-Derived Vector [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/200381