O aumento contínuo das emissões de gases causadores do efeito estufa resulta em níveis elevados de aquecimento do planeta. Estes efeitos, relacionados à mudança do clima, representam impactos na saúde humana, na produção de alimentos, nos ecossistemas e no abastecimento hídrico. Com o abastecimento hídrico afetado, as águas de menor qualidade para fins de irrigação, tornam-se importantes fontes hídricas para produção de alimentos. Dessa forma, objetivou-se estudar a tolerância da mini melancia à salinidade, bem como a resposta da cultura ao incremento de CO2 atmosférico, sob irrigação salina e não salina. O primeiro experimento foi realizado na Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz (ESALQ-Piracicaba), em casa de vegetação. Cultivaram-se plantas de mini melancia, cv. Smile, irrigadas com água de diferentes condutividades elétricas- CEa (1, 2, 3, 4 e 5 dSm-1) com o objetivo de estudar a tolerância das plantas, em função do estresse salino. O segundo experimento foi realizado no Centro Nacional de Pesquisa de Informática Agropecuária (CNPTIA-Campinas) em duas câmaras de crescimento. Com objetivo de estudar como o incremento do CO2 atmosférico afeta a tolerância à salinidade da mini melancia cv. Smile. Na primeira câmara de crescimento (C1), cultivaram-se as plantas irrigadas com águas de diferentes condutividades elétricas- CEa (1 e 5 dSm-1), com aumento da concentração atmosférica de CO2 para 800 ppm. Na segunda câmara de crescimento (C2), cultivaram-se as plantas irrigadas com as mesmas condutividades elétricas da C1, entretanto com a concentração de CO2 atmosférico de 400 ppm. A salinidade afetou negativamente e o aumento da concentração de CO2 afetou positivamente a massa e o tamanho dos frutos da mini melancia. Assim, conclui-se que a mini melancia cv. Smile é moderadamente sensível à salinidade e que o aumento da concentração de CO2 atmosférico favorece o desenvolvimento dos frutos irrigados com água salina e não salina. / The continued increase in emissions of greenhouse gas effect inducing gases results in the warming of the planet. These climate change-related effects impact human health, food production, ecosystems and water supply. With the water supply affected, lower quality water becomes a possible water source for food production. Thus, the purpose of this analysis was to study the tolerance of mini watermelon to salinity and the crop response to increasing atmospheric CO2 in saline and non-saline irrigation. The first experiment was conducted at the School of Agriculture \"Luiz de Queiroz\" (ESALQ-Piracicaba), under greenhouse conditions. Mini watermelon plants were cultivated and irrigated with water of different electrical conductivities-ECw (1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 dSm-1) with the purpose of observing the behavior of plants affected by salt stress. The second experiment was carred out at the National Center of Agricultural Informatics Research (CNPTIA-Campinas) in two different growth chambers. In the first growth chamber (C1), the plants were cultivated and irrigated with different electrical conductivities-ECw (1 and 5 dSm-1), with an increase of atmospheric CO2 concentration to 800 ppm. In the second growth chamber (C2), plants were grown and irrigated with the same electrical conductivities as in C1, though the atmospheric concentration was kept at CO2 400 ppm. The salinity negatively affected the mass and the size of the fruits of mini watermelon while the increased CO2 concentration had a positive effect. Thus, it is possible to conclude that the cv. Smile mini watermelon is moderately sensitive to salinity whereas the increasing atmospheric CO2 concentration favors the development of irrigated fruit with both saline and non-saline water.

O trabalho foi conduzido na EEA-UFRGS, em Eldorado do Sul/RS, entre dez/2011 e nov/2013 com o objetivo de estudar o efeito da estrutura do pasto no consumo de matéria seca e na emissão de metano e relacionar essa emissão com o desempenho animal em pastagem nativa submetida a níveis de oferta diária de forragem de 4, 8, 8.12, 12 e 16 kg de MS/100 kg de PV, ou %PV. Esses tratamentos foram distribuídos num delineamento experimental de blocos com duas repetições. Em pastoreio contínuo foram utilizadas novilhas mestiças com 24 meses de idade e 223 ± 24 kg em 2012 e 12 meses e 274 ± 17 kg em 2013 quando da entrada dos animais no protocolo experimental. As variáveis para descrever a estrutura do pasto foram: massa de forragem, taxa de acúmulo de forragem, altura do pasto e frequência de touceiras. Na avaliação de consumo de matéria seca utilizou-se a técnica dos n-alcanos a partir da teoria do duplo n-alcano. As emissões de metano foram estimadas pela técnica do marcador hexafluoreto de enxofre. Foi utilizado o delineamento experimental de blocos com duas repetições. As ofertas 4 e 8% emitiram menores quantidades de CH4/animal que as ofertas de forragem 16, 12 e 8.12% do PV. Os modelos estudados demonstraram que a variabilidade das emissões é explicada, em maior proporção, pelo conjunto de estrutura do pasto (R2=0.53), e que a relação entre emissão de CH4 e consumo de matéria seca foi altamente significativa (P<0.001), porém o consumo explicou a variância dos dados em proporção limitada (R2= 0.20). Anualmente a emissão de CH4 foi determinada por mudanças no consumo e na estrutura do pasto, principalmente, na taxa de acúmulo de forragem. Com baixa taxa de acúmulo, principalmente no inverno, há maior gasto de energia para realização da metanogênese. A relação observada entre a quantidade de CH4 emitido por kg de MS consumida em função do consumo diário de MS apresentou comportamento inversamente proporcional. O aumento da OF até níveis moderados de intensidade de pastejo proporcionam maiores GPV e maiores emissões de CH4 por animal que oferta de forragem baixa. Porém as ofertas de forragens alta e moderadas (16,12 e 8.12 ) emitiram menor quantidade de metano por área e por kg de peso vivo produzido. Portanto a busca por estruturas de pasto ideal através de manejos com intensidades de pastejo moderadas aliada a altas taxas de acúmulo do pasto, formam ambientes de pastejos na qual os bovinos mitigam metano por kg de MS consumida, por ha e por kg de PV produzido. / The study was conducted at the EEA-UFRGS, in Eldorado do Sul/ RS, from Dec/2011 to Nov/2013 in order to study the effect of the structure and dry matter intake in methane emissions and relate that to animal performance in native grassland. The treatments consisted of the following forage allowance levels: 4, 8, 8:12, 12 and16 kg DM / 100 kg live weight (LW), or % LW. The animal testers were crossbred heifers with 24 months of age and 223 ± 24 kg in 2012 and 12 months and 274 ± 17 kg in 2013 when the entry of animals in the experimental protocol. The variables to describe the pasture structure were: herbage mass, herbage accumulation rate, pasture height and frequency of tussocks. For the dry matter intake evaluation, it was used the technique of nalkanes technique based on the double alkane teory. Methane emissions were measured by the sulfur hexafluoride tracer technique. The experimental design was a randomized block design with two replications (paddocks) was used. The 4 and 8% LW herbage allowance treatments emited less CH4/animal than 16, 12 and 12.8% LW. The models showed that the variability of the emission is explained in a greater proportion, the set of pasture structure (R2 = 0,53), and that the relationship between emission of methane emission and dry matter intake was highly significant (P <0.001). On the other hand, consumption explained a smaller amount of the data variance (R2 = 0.20). Annuall methane emission was determined by changes in herbage consumption and sward structure, mainly herbage accumulation rate. With low herbage accumulation rate, especially in winter, there was a greater, waste of energy for methanogenesis. There was an inverse relationship between the amount of methane emitted per kg dry matter intake as a function of daily dry matter consumption. Increasing herbage allowance to moderate grazing intensity levels resulted in a greater LW gain and also higher CH4 emission per animal. However, high to moderate herbage allowance tratments (16, 12 and 8-12) emited less methane per area and per kg of LW produced. Managing native grasslands under moderate levels of herbage allowance can creat canopy strutures that favor both consumption and herbage accumulation rate, and also mitigate beff cattle methane emissions per kg of DM, per area and per kg LW produced.

Esta pesquisa teve como objetivo quantificar a emissão de metano (CH4) proveniente da vinhaça presente em diferentes sistemas de armazenamento e transporte e, adicionalmente, avaliar, por técnicas independentes de cultivo, a microbiota funcional relacionada à produção deste gás. Para atingir esta meta foram realizados três estudos complementares. O primeiro abordou a caracterização dos sistemas de armazenamento e transporte de vinhaça encontrados no Brasil baseado em um questionário aplicado às usinas produtoras de etanol. O segundo visou quantificar as emissões de CH4 em condições de campo provenientes da vinhaça nos canais e tanques e também em laboratório em um estudo de incubação. O terceiro estudo avaliou a microbiota funcional associada à emissão de CH4 através de técnicas independentes de cultivo, como PCR em tempo real (qPCR) e pirosequenciamento. As análises microbiológicas indicaram que as emissões de CH4 são produzidas, preferencialmente, através da decomposição anaeróbia do material orgânico dissolvido da vinhaça depositados no fundo dos sistemas. Estas emissões não são desprezíveis e devem ser consideradas nos cálculos de pegada de carbono do etanol. Nos canais sem revestimento a emissão média em dois anos safras consecutivos apresentou valor de 0,75 kg CO2 eq m-3 de vinhaça, aproximadamente 5 vezes superior às emissões na parte revestida. Nos tanques a emissão foi aproximadamente setenta vezes inferior quando comparada ao canal revestido. O experimento de incubação auxiliou no entendimento de que a vinhaça sozinha não produz quantidades significativas de CH4. Entende-se que os nichos microbianos metanogênicos provavelmente são formados no sedimento, enquanto que a vinhaça mantém as condições de anaerobiose do sedimento necessárias à metanogênese e fornece nutrientes para acelerar a reação. O gênero Methanobrevibacter se mostrou dominante na comunidade microbiana metanogênica, conforme demonstrado pelo pirosequenciamento do gene 16S rRNA. Houve correlação positiva entre a abundância do gene 16S rRNA de Arquéia e dos genes funcionais mcrA e mba com a emissão de CH4. As informações sobre produção e emissão de CH4 e das características da vinhaça constituem informações importantes para tomada de decisão sobre a mitigação e/ou aproveitamento do CH4 gerado para fins econômicos e ambientais. / This research aimed to quantify methane (CH4) emissions from the vinasse in different storage and transportation systems and, additionally, to evaluate the functional microbiota associated with the production of this gas by molecular biology approaches. Three complimentary studies were performed to reach this goal. The first one was related to the characterization of main vinasse storage and transportation systems adopted in Brazil based on a survey administered to the mills, in south-central region of Brazil, producing sugarcane etanol. The second aimed to quantify the CH4 emissions from vinasse in both, field - channels and thanks - and laboratory conditions. The third study evaluated the functional microbiota associated with the CH4 emission by molecular biology approaches like real time PCR ans pyrosequencing. Microbial analysis indicated that CH4 emissions are produced preferably by anaerobic decomposition of the organic material dissolved in the vinasse and deposited on the bottom of the systems. These emissions are not negligible and should be considered in ethanol\'s carbon footprint calculations. At the uncoated part of the channel, the average emission from two crop years was 0.75 kg CO2 eq m-3 of vinasse, about 5 times greater than the emissions at the coated part. Methane emissions from the tank were about seventy times lower than from the uncoated channel. The laboratory experiment supported the understanding that the vinasse alone produces no significant emission of CH4. The microbial methanogenic niches were probably formed in the sediment, while the vinasse keeps sediment anaerobic conditions necessary for methanogenesis and provides nutrients to speed up the reaction. The Methanobrevibacter genus showed dominant in methanogenic microbial community, as demonstrated by pyrosequencing of the 16S rRNA gene. There was a positive correlation between the abundance of 16S rRNA gene Archaea and the functional mcrA and mba genes with the emission of CH4. Information on production and emission of CH4 and vinasse characteristics are important for decision making on mitigation and/or use of gas generated for economic and environmental purposes.

Problemática mundial levantada nas últimas duas décadas, a geração de gases de efeito estufa (GEE) tem como parcela contribuidora a emissão de metano por ruminantes. O metano, um potente GEE, é produto final do processo fermentativo de bovinos e, por constituir perda no potencial produtivo destes, tem sido objeto de estudo por nutricionistas do mundo todo. Na busca por estratégias para diminuírem as perdas por metano, diferentes dietas, aditivos e manejos nutricionais têm sido empregados. Fontes lipídicas vegetais, como os grãos de soja, contêm alta porcentagem de ácidos graxos insaturados e este tipo lipídio pode colaborar para a diminuição da metanogênese. Em contrapartida, a inclusão de uma fonte rica em pectina (polpa cítrica) pode contribuir para aumento da produção de metano. Assim, objetivou-se com o presente experimento avaliar o efeito de diferentes fontes energéticas da dieta sobre a produção de metano e parâmetros fermentativos em bovinos. O delineamento adotado foi o quadrado latino 3x3 replicado, com período de 16 dias e 3 tratamentos: Controle: Dieta de baixo extrato etéreo (3,50% de EE); Soja: Dieta de alto extrato etéreo (inclusão de 15% de soja grão, com 5,30% de EE); Polpa: Dieta de baixo extrato etéreo e alta participação de pectina (inclusão de 15% de polpa cítrica, com 3,0% de EE). O consumo de matéria seca (CMS) foi obtido pela diferença do ofertado e a sobra da dieta nos últimos seis dias experimentais. O volume de líquido total, o volume de sólido total, o turnover de sólidos e a taxa de passagem ruminal foram obtidos pelo esvaziamento deste orgão, realizado no 11º e 12º dias experimentais, sendo realizado antes e 3 horas após a alimentação matutina. O conteúdo sólido foi retirado manualmente e o líquido com ajuda de bomba a vácuo, sendo estes pesados separadamente. Uma alíquota de 10% foi utilizada para determinar a matéria seca do conteúdo ruminal e corrigir o volume de sólido total. No 16° dia experimental, foi analisado o pH, com auxílio de uma probe de mensuração contínua. Neste mesmo dia foram realizadas coletas do conteúdo ruminal antes, 3, 6, 9 e 12 horas após a alimentação matinal, para a quantificação da produção de ácidos graxos de cadeia curta (AGCC). Também coletou líquido ruminal, com auxilio de bomba a vácuo, para análise de N-NH3. A técnica empregada para mensurar a produção de AGCC e metano foi de fermentação ruminal ex situ, que consiste em incubar frascos tipo penicilina com conteúdo ruminal sólido e líquido, em banho termostático por 30 minutos. Em seguida, a mensuração de metano e AGCC foi realizada por cromatografia gasosa e estimada a perda de energia realtiva (PER). A PER avalia a eficiência da fermentação dos alimentos, ou seja, verifica a perda de metano quando comparada aos outros produtos da fermentação. Os tratamentos apresentaram efeito (P<0,05) para CMS, Turnover de sólido e Taxa de Passagem. A dieta contendo Soja apresentou menores valores para estes parâmetros que as dietas Controle e Polpa. Os tratamentos não diferiram significativamente (P>0,05) para o Volume Sólido Total. As variáveis pH médio e máximo, tempo de pH abaixo de 5,8; 6,0 e 6,2, assim como, área de pH abaixo de 5,8 e 6,2, não diferiram (P>0,05) entre os tratamentos. Entretanto, o pH mínimo foi maior (P<0,05) para dieta contendo Soja em relação à dieta Controle, sem diferença dos dois grupos para polpa cítrica. A área de pH abaixo de 6,0 foi menos elevada (P<0,05) para o grupo soja quando comparado ao grupo controle, sem diferença dos dois grupos para polpa cítrica. Quanto ao nitrogênio amoniacal, não houve diferença (P>0,05) entre os tratamentos. As produções de AGCC totais, acetato e butirato (mMol/Kg/dia) foram mais elevadas na dieta à base de polpa cítrica e diminuída na dieta à base de grão de soja. Nenhuma dos tratamentos alterou a produção de metano ou a PER. A partir disto, essas fontes são indicadas para a utilização em dietas de bovinos, porém, a inclusão dos grãos de soja, alterou o CMS e sua inclusão resultou em mudanças no ambiente ruminal, alterando do perfil fermentativo, não demonstrando alterações na produção de metano e a PER. A inclusão de lipídios na dieta de bovinos pode diminuir a produção de metano, mas esse efeito não é específicos sobre as arqueas metanogênicas e, portanto, não altera a eficiência de fermentação ruminal. Já a pectina pode aumentar a produção de metano, por ter alta fermentabilidade ruminal, sem, contudo alterar a ineficiência deste processo. / Worldwide issue raised in the last two decades, the generation of greenhouse gases (GGE) has, a contributor parcel in the methane emission by ruminants. Methane, a powerful GGE, is the final product of cattle fermentative process and, for representing productive potential loss, has been studied by nutritionist all over the world. In the search for strategies to reduce losses by methane, different diets, additives and nutritional management have been used. Vegetable lipid sources, such as soybean grain contain high content of unsaturated fatty acids and this type of lipid can contribute to methanogenesis reduction. On the other hand, the inclusion of a high pectin (citrus pulp) source in diets can contribute for methane production increase. In this sense, the objective of the present experiment was to evaluate different energy sources in diet on methane production and fermentation parameters in cattle. The design adopted was a replicated 3x3 Latin square with 16 day period and 3 treatments: Control: Low ether extract diet (3.50% of EE); Soybean: High ether extract diet (inclusion of 15% of soybean grain with 5.30% of EE); Citrus pulp: Low ether extract and high inclusion of pectin diet (inclusion of 15% of citrus pulp with 3.0% of EE). Dry matter intake (DMI) was obtained by the difference between the offered and the surplus of the diet at the last six experimental days. Rumen total liquid volume, total solid volume, solid turnover and ruminal passage rate were obtained by the emptying of this organ performed at days 11 and 12 of each experimental period, before and 3 hours after morning feeding. The solid content was manually removed and the liquid by vacuum pulp and both samples weighed separately. A sample of 10% was used to determine dry matter of rumen content and correct total solid volume. At day 16 of experimental period, ruminal pH was determined by a data logger of continuous measurement. At this day, ruminal content sampling was carried out before, 3, 6, 9 and 12 hours after morning feeding for short chain fatty acids (SCFA) production. Rumen fluid was also collected, through vacuum pulp, for ammonia nitrogen determination. The technique applied to measure methane and SCFA production was the ex situ rumen fermentation that consists on the incubation of penicillin flasks with solid and liquid rumen content in a thermostatic bath for 30 min. After, methane and SCFA determinations were carried out by gas chromatography and the relative energy loss (REL) was estimated. The REL evaluates the efficiency of feed fermentation. In other words, verifies methane loss when compared to other fermentation products. It was observed effect of treatment (P<0.05) for DMI, rumen solid turnover and passage rate. Soybean diet had lower values than control and citrus pulp diet in all these parameters. Treatments did not significantly differ (P>0.05) for total solid volume. The variables mean and maximum ruminal pH, time wich pH was under 5.8; 6.0 and 6.2, as well as, pH area under 5.8 and 6.2 did not differ (P>0.05) between treatments. However, minimum pH was higher (P<0.05) in soybean group when compared to control, without difference of two groups to citrus pulp. pH area under 6.0 was lesser (P<0.05) in soybean group compared with control group, without difference of two groups to citrus pulp. For ammonia nitrogen determination, it was not observed difference (P>0.05) between treatments. Total SCFA, acetate and butirate production (mMol/kg/day) were increased in citrus pulp diet and were decreased in soybean diet. No diet altered (P>0.05) methane production or REL. The inclusion of lipids in the diet of cattle can reduce methane production, but this effect is not specific methanogenic archaea on and therefore does not alter the efficiency of rumen fermentation. Already pectin can increase the production of methane, having high fermentability rumen, without however changing the inefficiency of this process.

Ante o intenso uso global dos combustíveis fósseis, com suas massivas emissões de gases de efeito estufa (GEE), hoje, a energia é o maior forçamento antropogênico das mudanças climáticas. Como parte desses combustíveis, o petróleo é a fonte de energia mais utilizada e o segundo maior emissor de GEE do mundo, ainda permanecendo de uso predominante no longo prazo. Visando à mitigação dessas mudanças do clima, desenvolvem-se no mundo três estratégias principais: eficiência energética; intensificação do uso das fontes renováveis; e a captura e estocagem geológica de carbono (CO2) carbon capture and storage (CCS). Estudos recentes demonstram que, por meio da recuperação secundária especial de petróleo enhanced oil recovery (EOR) , com injeção miscível de CO2 (EOR-CO2 miscível), pode-se estocar geologicamente até 320 Gt CO2, produzindo-se, em paralelo, um trilhão de barris adicionais de óleo, globalmente. A EOR-CO2, já praticada há cerca de 40 (quarenta) anos unicamente para aumentar a recuperação de petróleo, também passou a ser o método de CCS de maior potencial global de geosequestro de carbono. Este trabalho investiga as emissões antropogênicas da energia, as características do sistema energético do petróleo, abarcando as condições e os mecanismos de miscibilidade e de sequestro geológico de carbono no atual cenário tecnológico da EOR-CO2, estabelecendo a sua conexão com a mitigação das mudanças climáticas através da CCS. O trabalho conclui que a EOR-CO2 é um método eficiente para a estocagem de carbono ao mesmo tempo em que aumenta o fator de recuperação. Hoje, com potencial global para sequestrar 85 Mt CO2/ano, ele já é responsável por 58% de todo o carbono geosequestrado no mundo; nas Américas, alcança 91%. Além de aumentar a eficiência no uso desse recurso disponível na biosfera, por extrair centenas de bilhões de barris adicionais de óleo, a EOR-CO2 transformou o sistema energético do petróleo num sumidouro de carbono com novo e relevante papel na mitigação das mudanças climáticas. / The intense using of fossil fuels on worldwide scale, with their massive greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, makes energy the greatest anthropogenic cause of climate change. Petroleum is and will remain, in the long term, the most used energy source and the second greatest emitter of GHG of the world. With the goal of mitigating climate changes, three major worldwide strategies are being applied: energy efficiency, increase using of renewable sources and carbon capture and storage (CCS). Recent studies show that, by enhanced oil recovery (EOR), with miscible injection of CO2 (miscible CO2-EOR), it is possible to store geologically up to 320 Gt of CO2, producing, at the same time, a trillion of additional oil barrels, globally. CO2-EOR, already used for 40 years in order to increase oil recovery, has also becomes the CCS method with the greatest global potential of geological carbon storage. This work aims to investigate the contribution of the petroleum energy system to mitigate climate change, with a greater efficiency in its recovery (optimizing the utilization of energy deposits available in the biosphere) at the same time that it allows the capture and geological storage of CO2 in the reservoir. EOR-CO2 is an effective means for carbon storage. With its capability to store 85 Mt of CO2 per year, it is already responsible for 58% of all carbon geosequestration in the world. In the Americas, reaches 91 %. EOR-CO2 increases oil production, in the order of hundreds billions barrels, and transforms the oil energy system in a carbon sink with a new and important role in climate change mitigation.

No description available.

Air pollutants and greenhouse gases are two groups of important trace components in the earth’s atmosphere that can affect local air quality, be detrimental to the human health and ecosystem, and cause climate change. Human activities, especially the energy use and energy production processes, are responsible for a significant share of air pollutants and greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. In this work, I specifically focused on characterizing air pollutants and greenhouse gas emissions from the on-road gasoline and diesel vehicles, which is an important energy use process that largely contributes to the urban air pollutions, and from the natural gas production systems, which is a major energy production process that has increased dramatically in recent years and is expected to have a long-lasting impact in the future. We conducted multi-seasonal measurements in the Fort Pitt Tunnel in Pittsburgh, PA to update the on-road vehicle emission factors, to measure the size distribution of vehicle emitted particulate matter (PM), and to quantify the volatility distributions of the vehicle emitter primary organic aerosol (POA). We also conducted mobile measurements in the Denver-Julesburg Basin, the Uintah Basin, and the Marcellus Shale to quantify facility-level VOC emission from natural gas production facilities, and I constructed a gridded (0.1° × 0.1°) methane emission inventory of natural gas production and distribution over the contiguous US. I found that the stricter emission standards were effective on regulating NOx and PM emissions of diesel vehicles and the NOx, CO and organic carbon (OC) emissions of gasoline vehicles, while the elemental carbon (EC) emissions of gasoline vehicles did not change too much over the past three decades. Vehicle-emitted particles may be largely externally mixed, and a large fraction of vehicle-emitted particles may be purely composed of volatile component. Vehicle-emitted smaller particles (10– 60 nm) are dominantly (over 75%) composed of volatile component. The size-resolved particles and particles emission factors for both gasoline and diesel vehicles are also reported in this work. I also found that the POA volatility distribution measured in the dynamometer studies can be applied to describe gas-particle partitioning of ambient POA emissions. The POA volatility distribution measured in the tunnel does not have significant diurnal or seasonal variations, which indicate that a single volatility distribution is adequate to describe the gas-particle partitioning of vehicle emitted POA in the urban environment. The facility-level VOC emission rates measured at gas production facilities in all three gas production fields are highly variable and cross a range of ~2-3 order of magnitudes. It suggests that a single VOC emission profile may not be able to characterize VOC emissions from all natural gas production facilities. My gridded methane emission inventory over the contiguous US show higher methane emissions over major natural gas production fields compared with the Environmental Protection Agency Inventory of US Greenhouse Gas Emission and Sinks (EPA GHGI) and the Emission Database for Global Atmospheric Research, version 4.2 (Edgar v4.2). The total methane emissions of the natural gas production and distribution sector estimated by my inventory are 74% and 20% higher than the Edgar v4.2 and EPA GHGI, respectively. I also run the GEOS-Chem methane simulation with my inventory and EPA GHGI and compare with the GOSAT satellite data, and results show that my inventory can improve the model and satellite comparison, but the improvement is very limited. The size-resolved emission factors of vehicle emitted particles and POA volatility distribution reported in this work can be applied by the chemical transport models to better quantify the contribution of vehicle emissions to the PM in the atmosphere. Since our measurement of VOC emissions of natural gas production facilities were conducted before EPA started to regulate VOC emissions from the O&NG production facilities in 2016, the facility-level VOC emission rates reported in this work can serve as the basis for future studies to test the effectiveness of the regulatory policies. The spatially resolved methane emission inventory of natural gas production and distribution constructed in this work can be applied to update the current default methane emission inventory of GEOS-Chem, and the updated methane emission inventory can be used as a better a priori emission field for top-down studies that inversely estimate methane emissions from atmospheric methane observation.

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The exploitation of natural resources lays the foundation for the economic and social development, but also is the root cause of various environmental issues. The study aims to analyze the process of natural resource exploitation, to optimize the extraction and utilization processes, maximizing their economic and social values while reducing the accompanied negative environmental impacts. This dissertation focuses on the impacts of exploitation of mineral and hydrocarbon resources in emerging countries on global warming effect, economy and society. Chapter 2 of the dissertation analyzes the life cycle GHG emissions associated with iron ore mining and processing in China. With rapid economic development and nationwide urbanization, the iron ore demand grows while the ore grade declines significantly, leading to the increasing GHG emissions from iron ore production. Results of the research show that the mean life-cycle GHG emissions for Chinese iron ore production are 270 kg CO2e/tonne, with a 90% confidence interval of 210 to 380 kg CO2e/tonne. The two largest contributors to overall GHG emissions are agglomeration (60%) and ore processing (23%). Iron content (ore grade) varies from 15% to 60% and is the largest contributor (40%) to the uncertainty of the results. Chapter 3 explores the impact of China’s outsourcing of iron resources on the global warming effect. This chapter applies the same life cycle assessment framework of Chinese iron ore in Chapter 2 to Australian and Brazilian ore production, and compares the LCA results of Australian and Brazilian ore to Chinese iron ore. Results show that among the three iron ore sources, Australian iron ore is the optimal choice for reducing GHG emissions. The mean life cycle GHG emissions of Australian iron ore fines is 60% less than that of Chinese iron ore fines (42 kg CO2e/tonne versus 110 kg CO2e/tonne). There is no significant difference between the imported iron ores sourced from Brazil versus the China’s domestic supplied iron ores, but if Chinese ore grade falls below 20% in the future, Brazilian iron ores would be preferred. The largest source of GHG emissions for Australian and Brazilian iron ores comes from ocean shipping (accounts for 58% and 75% of the overall GHG emissions respectively). Chapter 4 studies the impacts of the exploitation of pre-salt natural gas in Brazil. Natural gas production and its associated downstream industries are currently underdeveloped in Brazil, while the on-going exploitation of deep-sea pre-salt reservoir would potentially change the current situation. This study analyzes the impacts of the increasing pre-salt gas production and potential natural gas use pathways in downstream industries. Results reveal that GHG emissions associated with pre-salt gas production vary according to the stage of reservoir exploitation. At the early stage, the estimate of GHG emissions is 5.4 (90%CI: 4.5~6.4) gCO2e/MJ, and the value becomes 7.1 (90% CI: 6.3~8.0) gCO2e/MJ for the intermediate stage. All six natural gas use pathways analyzed in the study emit less GHG on average than their current corresponding incumbent pathways. The mean GHG emissions reduction from natural gas use for power generation, nitrogen fertilizer production, methanol production, as the reducing agent for steel making, ethylene-based polymer production, heavy-duty vehicle fueling are estimated to be 0.83, 2.3, 0.38, 35, 2.6 and 0.078 million tonnes CO2 equivalent per year, respectively. The specific economic profits of the six pathways are affected by the prices of natural gas and traditional fuel. Under current fuel prices, the net annual profits for the six pathways are -270, 87, 92, 1700, 190 and -1500 million dollars, respectively. The job creation potential from the pathways of power generation, nitrogen fertilizer production, methanol production and as reducing agent for steel production are estimated to be 28, 17, 5 and 36 thousand, respectively.

M.Phil. / Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) can be defined as one of the project-based mechanisms established under the Kyoto protocol mechanism as a supplementary measure to assist Annex 1 parties meet their emission reduction targets through investing in project activities that reduce Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions and contribute to sustainable development in Non–Annex 1 countries. These projects reduce GHG emissions and generate credits called Certified Emission Reductions (CERs) that the Annex 1 party can use to meet their emission reduction obligations under the Kyoto Protocol [Curnow & Hodes, 2009]. While countries such as China and India have benefited remarkably from the CDM, African countries (including South Africa (SA)) have failed to maximise the financial benefits offered by this mechanism. Even though South Africa is leading, in terms of the number of registered CDM projects in Africa, it is still lagging far behind other developing regions in this regard. The South African leaders in CDM project development are in the private sector. This research aims to identify the constraints that inhibit large scale implementation of CDM projects by Gauteng Municipalities and to investigate the reasons why South African municipalities are lagging behind the private sector in CDM project development, and identify opportunities for further development of CDM projects. This identification was achieved by compiling a list of known barriers (then investigating these barriers together with a number of other factors that may impact negatively on the CDM market in South Africa) The study was conducted using qualitative research techniques, which utilises methods such as participant observation, in-depth interviews and/or focus groups. Three different groups of respondents were identified: (i) the European CER buyers; (ii) the project developers/ CDM consultants in South Africa; and (iii) the Gauteng municipal officials responsible for CDM project development. A separate questionnaire was compiled for each of the three target groups, with purpose of drawing conclusions about the prevailing status of the South African CDM market from the perspectives of these three different groups. Three previous studies have been conducted to investigate the barriers of implementing CDM in South Africa, examining the problem from various perspectives. Little et al. [2007] conducted a study that focused on the inhibiting and facilitating factors affecting the implementation of CDM by South African industries. Wilson [2007] focused on the barriers against and drivers for the implementation of CDM within the Nelson Mandela Bay Municipality - this study drew conclusions about CDM implementation in municipalities based on the experiences of this single municipality. Winkler and van Es [2007] dealt with the opportunities and constraints of the CDM implementation in energy efficiency projects throughout South Africa.