In this thesis I present a novel method for constructing large scale mock galaxy and halo catalogues and apply this model to a number of important topics in modern cosmology. Traditionally such mocks are created through first evolving a high resolution particle simulation from a set of initial conditions to the present epoch, identifying bound structures and their evolution, and finally applying a semi-analytic prescription for galaxy formation. In contrast to this computationally expensive procedure, I use low resolution simulations to obtain a density field that traces large scale modes. From this background I sample the population statistics of halos: the number of halos which are typically found within a region of a given overdensity, to produce a halo catalogue. From the halo catalogue I then produce galaxies by appealing to the halo model. In this model the expected number of galaxies within a halo and the distribution of their properties is dependent on halo mass alone. By sampling conditional luminosity functions for a number of populations of galaxies, I produce a galaxy catalogue with luminosity and colour properties. The aim of developing algorithm is not to probe the mechanics of galaxy formation in great detail. It is instead intended as a method of rapidly producing mock galaxy and halo catalogues rapidly on modern desktop computers. The approach we will take is to try to distill the minimal algorithm required to achieve this and still provide useful catalogues for observational cosmologists. Both the conditional mass function and conditional luminosity functions required for the algorithm are calibrated from the Millennium Simulation, one of the highest resolution cosmology simulations to date, and its associated semi-analytic catalogues. In Chapter 2 I examine these statistics and provide fits to the quantities of interest. As a test of the method, in Chapter 3 I produce a halo and galaxy catalogue from the same large scale modes as the Millennium Simulation. The clustering statistics of galaxies and halos within this re-simulation are calculated and compared with those of the original. Con dent of the accuracy of the method, in Chapter 4 I populate a number of simulations, each 8 times the volume of the Millennium Simulation, and study the evolution of the Baryon Acoustic Oscillation signal. For each population (dark matter, halos and galaxies) I fit the BAO in the power spectrum to obtain the shift in the BAO peak. In Chapter 5 I extend the algorithm to produce lightcones: simulated skies in which the evolution of the Universe along the line of sight is accounted for. I simulate the geometry and limitations of a major pending survey and calculate the expected clustering signature I expect to see in both. The redshift space distortions induced by peculiar velocities of galaxies along the line of sight are determined and their ability to distinguish between gravity models is also explored. In Chapter 6 I detail a further extension to the algorithm for simulating weak gravitational lensing surveys. I use the analytic 2D surface density pro files of NFW profiles to dress each dark matter halo on a lightcone. The sum of these pro files over the entire population can be used to construct high resolution maps of the convergence. From these maps I calculate the spectrum of the convergence and compare with theoretical predictions. Finally in Chapter 7 I discuss further possible applications and extensions of the algorithm I have developed in this thesis.

This thesis investigates the morphology of early-type galaxies in two rich clusters using 2D surface photometry. In particular, the amount of light in the 'disk' component is focussed upon, as the presence of a disk is the main morphological criterion in distinguishing between the traditional 'elliptical' and 'S0' classes. Extensive and photometric E-band CCD observations of continuous areas of the Coma and Abell 1367 clusters were obtained at the 2.5 m Isaac Newton telescope, La Palma during March 1994. A subset of this large data-set has been used in this study, comprising a magnitude-limited (to R = 15.6) sample of 153 galaxies in the two clusters. Surface photometry measurements, including surface brightness profiles and isophotal shapes, have been made for the sample. Atmospheric seeing is a major problem when measuring light profiles at the distance of Coma from ground-based telescopes. Typical seeing at La Palma (FWHM~1.2") is a significant fraction of the effective radius of many Coma/Abell 1367 galaxies (r(_e)~3" for small ellipticals). An iterative algorithm was developed to deconvolve the effects of seeing from surface brightness profiles. The result of the algorithm is to extend the range of useful surface photometry inwards to within 2 times the FWHM. In order to parametrise the surface brightness profiles and discriminate between different profile-types, further software was developed to fit one- and two-component model profiles to the seeing-corrected data. The following parameters were measured and tabulated for each of the 153 galaxies: total magnitude M(_t); half-light parameters r (_1/2) and (μ)(_1/2); SB at half-light radius μ(r(_1/2)); photometric diameter D(_19.23) (equivalent to D(_n)); ellipticity at R = 21.5 isophote ϵ(_21.5); averaged isophote high-order terms (C(_3)), (S(_3)), (C(_4)) and (S(_4)); effective radii and surface brightnesses of 5 single power-law r(^1)(_n) models, r"e and (^)"^ (n = 1,2,3,4,5); best-fitting power-law index n; bulge effective radii and surface brightnesses from the two-component fit and (/^)\; disk effective parameters r'^e and {nY^] and disk-to-bulge luminosity ratio DjB. The measured parameters have been used to investigate various aspects of early-type galaxy morphology. The conclusions are outlined below. Firstly, a two-component r? plus exponential model is a better fit to most galaxies than a single component law fit. Secondly, the traditional division of early-type galaxies into 'elliptical' and 'SO' classes is severely biased by the viewing angle. In fact, it appears that early-type galaxies comprise a population of objects with smoothly varying bulge-to-disk ratio - although a few ellipticals (less than 13%) do not appear to have a exponential component. Finally, there is a general correlation (with much scatter) between the size and the profile shapes of early-type galaxies. The interpretation is that smaller galaxies are more disk-dominated than larger galaxies, which can be linked to the merging process in rich clusters.

Dwarf galaxies are powerful tools in the study of galactic evolution. As the most numerous galaxies in the universe, they probe a diverse range of environments: some exist in near-isolation, allowing us to study how a galaxy’s evolution depends on its intrinsic properties. Others have been accreted by larger galaxies and show the impact of environmental processes such as tidal stripping. Because dwarf galaxies have shallow potential wells, these processes leave strong signatures in their star formation histories (SFHs). We use state-of-the-art cosmological hydrodynamical simulations to study the evolution of dwarf galaxies in Local Group analogues. Their SFHs are remarkably diverse, but also show robust average trends with stellar mass and environment. Low- mass isolated dwarfs (10^5 < M∗/M⊙ < 10^6) form all of their stars in the first few Gyr, whereas their more massive counterparts have extended star formation histories, with many of the most massive dwarfs (10^7 < M∗/M⊙ < 10^9) continuing star formation until the present day. Satellite dwarfs exhibit similar trends at early and intermediate times, but with substantially suppressed star formation in the last ∼ 5 Gyr, likely as a result of gas loss due to tidal and ram-pressure stripping after entering the haloes of their primaries. These simple mass and environmental trends are in good agreement with the derived SFHs of Local Group dwarfs whose photometry reaches the oldest main sequence turnoff. SFHs of galaxies with less deep data show deviations from these trends, but this may be explained, at least in part, by the large galaxy-to-galaxy scatter, the limited sample size, and the large uncertainties of the inferred SFHs. / Graduate

The detection of Mpc scale diffuse radio emission in galaxy clusters provides evidence that cosmic ray electrons, as well as cluster scale magnetic fields are present in clusters. As such, radio observations of clusters provide a unique opportunity to study the non-thermal populations of the intra-cluster medium. Observations of Faraday rotation in sources embedded in cluster and group environments offers an additional method for probing the cluster/group magnetic field. In this thesis I present low frequency radio observations of multiple galaxy clusters in order to investigate the nature of diffuse radio emission present in many clusters. I also present observations of the giant radio galaxy NGC 6251 and discuss both the source properties as well as the host group environment. In Chapter 1 of this thesis I review the current understanding of galaxy clusters, groups and radio galaxies. I also describe some of the astrophysical processes important to this thesis. In Chapter 2 I discuss the interferometry and the process of calibrating interferometric data. I also describe some of the techniques used later in the thesis such as QUfitting and RM synthesis. In Chapter 3 I present my observations of the massive merging galaxy cluster MACSJ2243.3-0935. I report the discovery of a radio halo in MACSJ2243.3-0935, as well as a new radio relic candidate, using the Giant Meterwave Radio Telescope and the KAT-7 telescope. The radio halo is coincident with the cluster X-ray emission and has a largest linear scale of approximately 0.9 Mpc. I measure a flux density of $10.0\pm 2.0\, \rm mJy$ at 610 MHz for the radio halo. I discuss equipartition estimates of the cluster magnetic field and constrain the value to be of the order of $1\, \rm \mu G$. The relic candidate is detected at the cluster virial radius where a filament meets the cluster. The relic candidate has a flux density of $5.2\pm 0.8\, \rm mJy$ at 610 MHz. I discuss possible origins of the relic candidate emission and conclude that the candidate is consistent with an infall relic. In Chapter 4 I present my GMRT observations at 610 MHz of 3 disturbed galaxy clusters, A07, A1235 and A2055. No diffuse emision was observed any of the three clusters. In order to place upper limits on the radio halo power in these clusters I have injected simulated halos at difffent radio powers into the uvdata. A07 has a radio halo upper limit of $P_{\rm 610MHz}=1.5\times10^{24}$ W Hz$^{-1}$. A2055 has a radio halo upper limit of $P_{\rm 610MHz}=1.8\times10^{24}$ W Hz$^{-1}$. A1235 has a radio halo upper limit of $P_{\rm 610MHz}=5.8\times10^{23}$ W Hz$^{-1}$. These limits are below the $P_{610}-L_{\rm X}$ relation and rule out bright radio halo in these clusters. I have identified these clusters as potential hosts for Ultra Steep Spectrum Radio Halo (USSRH). Observations with LOFAR should be capable of confirming whether or not these clusters host USSRH. In Chapter 5 I present observations of the giant radio galaxy NGC 6251 with LOFAR HBA. NGC 6251 is a giant radio galaxy with a borderline FRI/FRII morphology located in a poor group. The images presented in this chapter are the highest sensitivity and resolution images of NGC 6251 at these frequencies to date. Analysis of the low frequencies spectral index did not reveal any change in the low frequency spectra when compared with the higher frequency spectral index. NGC 6251 is found to be either at equilibrium or slightly electron dominated, similar to FRII sources. I calculated the ages of the low surface brightness extension of the northern lobe and the backflow of the southern lobe, which are only clearly visible at these low frequencies, to be 205 Myr$.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / Using two hydrodynamic galaxy formation simulations from the Mufasa project that I helped develop, we aim to better understand the relationship between galaxy evolution and its cold gas content commonly known as the neutral hydrogen or Hi. We first look at the environmental properties of the simulated galaxies and compare to those that are available observationally. As a proxy, we specifically quantify the so-called galactic conf ormity, which is the concordance between the properties of galaxies neighbouring the primaries, in chapter 2. We show that the Hi, the specific star formation rate (sSFR) and the colour of galaxies show galactic conformity in qualitative agreement with previous observed data, i.e. the Hi-rich primary galaxies are surrounded by Hi-richer galaxies than the Hi-poor primary galaxies, and similarly for the sSFR and the colour. We find that environment, quantified by the number of neigbouring galaxies within a fixed aperture, stellar age and molecular hydrogen (H2) also show conformity. Galactic conformity also depends on the dark matter halo mass of the primary galaxy. The galactic conformity signal from the primaries of smaller haloes is weak but extends out to several virial radii of those structures, whereas the signal is very strong for high mass haloes but lowers quickly with distances from the primaries. We also find the galactic conformity only emerges in the later half of cosmic evolution. We next quantify the gas content and star formation depletion timescales in chapter 3. We use two carefully chosen groups of simulated galaxies and find that timescales are affected by both the mass of the virialised structure of the first infall and the galaxy stellar mass at infall: the higher the halo mass or the stellar mass the shorter the timescale. The gas or Hi depletion timescale is concordant to that of the star formation quenching, indicative of direct decrease of SFR due to depletion of the extended cold gas reservoir. The neutral atomic or molecular hydrogen consumption timescale depends on the Hubble time. Galaxies tend to form stars more efficiently at lower redshift. While the halo mass of infall affects the consumption timescale of the Hi, it does not correlate with the H2. We lastly develop machine learning tools to use galaxy photometric data to predict a galaxy’s Hi mass in chapter 4, to allow predictions for Hi from much larger optical photometric surveys. The training and testing of the algorithms are done first with the simulated data from Mufasa. We show that our model performs better than previously done with ad hoc data fitting approaches. Random Forest (RF) followed by the Deep Neural Networks (DNN) perform best among the explored machine learning techniques. Extending the trained models to observed data, namely the Arecibo Legacy Fast ALFA (ALFALFA) and REsolved Spectroscopy Of a Local VolumE (RESOLVE) survey data, we show the overall performance is slightly reduced relative to the simulated testing set owing to the small inconsistency between definition of galaxy properties between simulation and observational data, and DNN perfoms the best in this case. The application of our methods is useful for galaxy-by-galaxy predictions and anticipated to correct for incompletness in the upcoming Hi deep surveys done with MeerKAT and eventually the Square Kilometre Array (SKA).

In this dissertation we analyse the dark matter substructure dynamics within a series of high-resolution cosmological galaxy clusters simulations generated with the N-body code MLAPM. Two new halo finding algorithms were designed to aid in this analysis. The first of these was the 'MLAPM-halo-nder' (MHF), built upon the adaptive grid structure of MLAPM. The second was the 'MLAPM-halo-tracker' (MHT), an extension of MHF which allowed the tracking of orbital characteristics of gravitationally bound objects through any given cosmological N-body-simulation. Using these codes we followed the time evolution of hundreds of satellite galaxies within the simulated clusters. These clusters were chosen to sample a variety of formation histories, ages, and triaxialities; despite their obvious differences, we and striking similarities within the associated substructure populations. Namely, the radial distribution of these substructure satellites follows a 'universal' radial distribution irrespective of the host halo's environment and formation history. Further, this universal substructure profile is anti-biased with respect to the underlying dark matter profile. All satellite orbits follow nearly the same eccentricity distribution with a correlation between eccentricity and pericentre. The destruction rate of the substructure population is nearly independent of the mass, age, and triaxiality of the host halo. There are, however, subtle differences in the velocity anisotropy of the satellite distribution. We nd that the local velocity bias at all radii is greater than unity for all halos and this increases as we move closer to the halo centre, where it varies from 1.1 to 1.4. For the global velocity bias we nd a small but slightly positive bias, although when we restrict the global velocity bias calculation to satellites that have had at least one orbit, the bias is essentially removed. Following this general analysis we focused on three specific questions regarding the evolution of substructures within dark matter halos. Observations of the Virgo and Coma clusters have shown that their galaxies align with the principal axis of the cluster. Further, a recent statistical analysis of some 300 Abell clusters conrm this alignment, linking it to the dynamical state of the cluster. Within our simulations the apocentres of the satellite orbits are preferentially found within a cone of opening angle 40 degrees around the major axis of the host halo, in accordance with the observed anisotropy found in galaxy clusters. We do, however, note that a link to the dynamical age of the cluster is not well established. Further analysis connects this distribution to the infall pattern of satellites along the filaments, rather than some 'dynamical selection' during their life within the host's virial radius. We then focused our attention on the outskirts of clusters investigating the socalled 'backsplash population', i.e. satellite galaxies that once were inside the virial radius of the host but now reside beyond it. We and that this population is significant in number and needs to be appreciated when interpreting empirical galaxy morphology-environmental relationships and decoupling the degeneracy between nature and nurture. Specifically, we and that approximately half of the galaxies with current clustercentric distance in the interval 1- 2 virial radii of the host are backsplash galaxies which once penetrated deep into the cluster potential, with 90% of these entering to within 50% of the virial radius. These galaxies have undergone significant tidal disruption, losing on average 40% of their mass. This results in a mass function for the backsplash population different to those galaxies infalling for the first time. We further show that these two populations are kinematically distinct and should be observable spectroscopically. Finally we present a detailed study of the real and integrals-of-motion space distributions of a disrupting satellite obtained from one of our self-consistent highresolution cosmological simulations. The satellite has been re-simulated using various analytical halo potentials and we and that its debris appears as a coherent structure in integrals-of-motion space in all models ('live' and analytical potential) although the distribution is significantly smeared for the live host halo. The primary mechanism for the dispersion is the mass growth of the host. However, when quantitatively comparing the effects of 'live' and time-varying host potentials we conclude that not all of the dispersion can be accounted for by the steady growth of the host's mass. We ascribe the remaining differences to additional effects in the 'live' halo such as non-sphericity of the host and interactions with other satellites, which have not been modelled analytically.

Interacting galaxies are thought to be the essential building blocks of elliptical galaxies under the hierarchical galaxy formation scenario. The goal of my dissertation is to broaden our understanding of galaxy merger evolution through both observational studies and instrument developments. Observationally, I approach the goal photometrically and spectroscopically. The photometric studies better constrain the number density evolution of wet and dry mergers through five CFHTLS broad band photometry up to z~1. Meanwhile, by comparing the merger and elliptical galaxy mass density function, I discovered that the most massive mergers are not all formed via merging processes, unless the merging timescale is much longer than the expected value. Spectroscopically, the kinematic properties of close pair galaxies were studied to understand how star formation were quenched at z~0.5. I discovered that the number of red-red pairs are rare, which does not support the gravitational quenching mechanism suggested by the hot halo model. In instrumentation, one efficient way to study galaxy mergers is to use the integral field spectroscopic technique, capitalizing its intrinsic capability of obtaining 2-D spectra effectively. However, the currently available integral field spectrographs are inadequate to provide the required combination of integral field size and spectral resolution for merger studies. I, therefore, have developed two optical designs of a wide integral field infrared spectrograph (WIFIS), which I call WIFIS1 and WIFIS2, to satisfy the requirements of merger studies. Both the designs provide an integral field of 12" x 5" on 10-m telescopes (or equivalently 52" x 20" on 2.3-m telescopes). WIFIS1 delivers spectral resolving powers of 5,500 covering each of JHK bands in a single exposure; WIFIS2 does a lower power of 3,000 focusing on a shorter wavebands of zJ and H bands. All the WIFIS2 optical components have either been or being fabricated, and some of the components have been characterized in the laboratory, including its integral field unit, gratings, and mirrors. The expected completion of WIFIS based on WIFIS2 is 2013 summer, which will be followed by WIFIS1-based spectrograph in a few years.

An outstanding question in galaxy evolution research is whether the star formation histories of low mass systems are dominated by global starbursts or modes that are more quiescent and continuous. In this thesis, we quantify the prevalence of global starbursts in dwarf galaxies at the present epoch, and attempt to infer their characteristic durations, frequencies and amplitudes in the past. Our approach is to directly tally the number of bursting dwarfs in a complete local sample, and to compute the fraction of star formation that is concentrated in these systems. The resulting starburst number and mass fractions are then combined with B-V colors from the literature, the H-alpha EWs presented here, and stellar evolutionary synthesis models in order to place constraints on the average starburst duty cycle. The primary dataset used has been put together by the 11 Mpc H-alpha UV Galaxy Survey, who have collected data on an approximately volume-limited, statistical sample of star-forming galaxies within 11 Mpc of the Milky Way.Our main observational results, along with the accumulation of star formation studies of dwarf galaxies over the past three decades, paint a consistent picture where systems that are currently experiencing a massive global burst are just the 6% +/- 3% tip of a low-mass galaxy iceberg. Moreover, bursts are responsible for 22% +/- 10% of the total star formation in the overall dwarf galaxy population, so the majority of stars in low-mass systems do not appear to be formed in this mode today.Over their lifetimes, however, a greater fraction of the stellar mass of a dwarf may be formed in the burst mode. Synthesis modeling suggests that bursts cycles appear to be necessary in order to simultaneously explain the present-day observed blue B-V colors and modest H-alpha EWs of TYPICAL, CURRENTLY NON-BURSTING dwarf irregulars, unless non-standard assumptions concerning the IMF and the escape fractions of Lyman continuum photons are made. The starburst cycle that we converge upon involves burst durations of 50-100 Myrs, cycle frequencies of 1 to 3 per Gyr, and elevated burst SFRs that are a factor of 6-10 higher than the rate in the quiescent state. Galaxies characterized by such a SFH would spend ~10% of their lives in the burst state, and form ~50% of their stellar mass during this time.

Powerful forces are at work in giant Ly α nebulae, a rare and mysterious population in the high redshift universe. Much like the spatially extended emission line halos around high redshift radio galaxies . but without the strong radio emission . Ly α nebulae (or Ly α 'blobs') boast copious Ly α emission (10⁴⁴ erg s⁻¹), large sizes (∼100 kpc), complex gas morphologies, and the company of numerous compact, star-forming galaxies, and may offer a window into dramatic episodes of massive galaxy formation. The small sample sizes and complex inner workings of Ly α nebulae have limited progress on understanding the their space density, environments, and physical conditions. This thesis strives to answer fundamental questions about Ly α nebulae and pave the way for understanding their role in the build up of massive galaxy systems. To address the frequency of collapse of these massive structures, we carried out the largest systematic Ly α nebula survey to date and measured the Ly α nebula space density. As an unbiased test of the environment of Ly α nebulae, we studied the surroundings of a Ly α nebula and confirmed that Ly α nebulae reside preferentially in overdense regions. To disentangle the sources of ionization, we took a census of all the compact ionization sources within a large Ly α nebula using high resolution imaging. Finally, we used photoionization modeling to put constraints on the physical conditions, the metallicity, and the sources of ionization within Ly α nebulae. Future work will be able to build on this thesis by expanding the systematic search for Ly α nebulae to other existing deep broad-band datasets, mapping the three-dimensional overdense structures in which Ly α nebulae live out to ≥ 50 (comoving) Mpc scales, and disentangling multiple sources of ionization within a larger sample of individual systems using deep optical and near-infrared spectroscopy and detailed photoionization modeling.

This thesis is a detailed, multi-waveband study of the inner 14 kpc of the famous spiral galaxy, NCG 891. The primary data have come from the Infrared Space Observatory's Camera. These data are images of the galaxy in 9 different mid-infrared wavebands. We have supported these data with archived data from the Spitzer Infrared Array Camera in 4 similar wavebands. Surface brightness contour maps of the galaxy were created and examined to determine where the mid-infrared emitters are located with respect to the galactic plane. We have determined that the main mid-infrared emission, due to warm dust and PAHs, lies in a thin disk of width 700 - 800 pc, but has faint emission that reaches up to about 2.3 kpc into the halo. The infrared spectral energy distribution (SED) for four environments in NGC 891 were created from the above mentioned wavebands as well as measurements from Spitzer's Multiband Imaging Photometer (3 Far-Infrared wavebands), the Two Micron All Sky Survey J, H, and K near-infrared wavebands, and the Sub-millimeter Common User Bolometer Array 450 and 850 $\mu$m bands. These spectra were fit with a SED model created by Frederic Galliano, and the physical properties of these environments were computed. The maps and SED show that while there is a relatively large amount of dust in NGC 891's halo, there is a depletion of PAHs beyond 2.3 kpc from the mid-plane. This is only the fourth galaxy to date that has PAH emission discovered in the halo, and it is the first in which the SED has been modeled for the halo. / Thesis (Master, Physics, Engineering Physics and Astronomy) -- Queen's University, 2007-08-15 22:39:02.167