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Une prise de décision inadaptée est au centre de nombreuses pathologies neuropsychiatriques, telle que la toxicomanie, mais concerne également certains sujets sains, pour lesquels les gratifications immédiates prévalent sur les conséquences à long terme. Afin de mieux comprendre les bases neuropsychologiques et neurobiologiques de la prise de décision dans un cadre normal et pathologique, les sujets sains inadaptés constituent un modèle prometteur. Une tâche de mesure de la prise de décision chez le rat (le Rat Gambling Task, RGT) a récemment été validée dans l’équipe, très similaire à l’Iowa Gambling Task chez l’homme et permettant de révéler, parmi une population saine de rats, une majorité de sujets performants, et une minorité de non performants. Ces rats persistent à choisir les options immédiates les plus récompensantes, mais associées à de fortes pénalités imprédictibles, entrainant un faible gain final. Nous avons montré que tous ces rats sont inflexibles et moins efficaces dans la qualité du caractère dirigé de l’action. Ils présentent également une motivation accrue pour les récompenses, qui dépend d’une balance complexe coût/bénéfice, étroitement liée à l’effort à fournir, à la palatabilité de la récompense mais pas à la perception de la sensation plaisante ou des besoins métaboliques. Par ailleurs, nous avons montré qu’il n’existe pas de relation directe entre les capacités de mémoire de travail et la prise de décision. Sur le plan neurobiologique, nous avons montré 1) que la qualité du caractère dirigé de l’action dépend d’une balance d’activité PL/SDM et 2) que la prise de décision dans le RGT engage différemment des structures spécifiques selon les performances dans la tâche et la cinétique d’élaboration des choix. Ainsi, le fort recrutement de l’OFC et du Nacc shell serait un marqueur de choix adaptés, alors que celui de PL/SDM serait modulé selon la rapidité à préférer les choix favorables. Le CgA, IL et l’amygdale se désengageraient lorsque les choix sont établis. Les rats non performants présentent une hypoactivité préfrontale associée à une activité persistante de l’amygdale, suggérant un contrôle cognitif préfrontal déficient, couplé à une altération dans les associations liées à la valeur des options, induisant un déficit d’acquisition et de ré-actualisation de la valeur incitative des choix. Nous avons également montré que les différences inter-individuelles dans le RGT sont associées à des différences dans le fonctionnement basal du système monoaminergique. Les rats non performants présentent notamment (1) des métabolismes DA- et 5HT-ergique plus élevés au niveau d’IL, en accord avec l’impulsivité motrice de ces rats, et/ou la moindre qualité du caractère dirigé de l’action et (2) un métabolisme DA-ergique plus élevé au niveau du Nacc core et 5HT-ergique plus faible au niveau du BLA, suggérant une relation étroite avec leur motivation accrue et la qualité des associations liées à la valeur des options. Finalement, ces données sont intéressantes au regard des modifications dans le fonctionnement monoaminergique de base induites par des polymorphismes génétiques, conduisant à une prise de décision inadaptée, ainsi qu’à certaines pathologies psychiatriques. Toutes ces caractéristiques comportementales et neurobiologiques qui forment un ensemble cohérent pourraient correspondre à un endophénotype de troubles mentaux. Les études à l’avenir devront investir la relation directe avec la pathologie, telle que l’addiction, et l’exploration de ces caractéristiques au niveau génétique. / Decision-making is profoundly impaired in several psychiatric disorders such as addiction, but also in some healthy individuals for whom immediate gratifications prevail over long term gain. To better elucidate the neuropsychological and neurobiological bases of good and poor decision making in normal and pathological conditions, healthy poor decision-makers represent a promising model. Recently, a Rat Gambling Task, aimed at measuring decision-making like in the Iowa gambling Task in humans has been validated. It allows the identification, among a normal population of rats, of majority of good decision-makers, and a minority of poor decision-makers that prefer immediate larger reward despite suffering large loses. We demonstrated that all poor decision makers are unflexible and less efficient in goal-directed behavior. They also have a higher motivation for reward that depends on a complex cost/benefice balance, related to the effort to make, to food palatability, but not to the perception of the pleasant feeling or to metabolic needs. Moreover, we demonstrated the absence of relationship between decision making performance and working memory. At the neurobiological level, we demonstrated 1) that efficiency in goal-directed behavior depends on balance of activity between PL and SDM and 2) that decision making depends on specific brain regions, with a level of activity related to the performance, as well as the time course to make choices. Higher OFC and Nacc shell activities are systematically associated with good decision making, whereas the recruitment of PL/SDM is modulated according to the time course to make good choices. CgA, IL and the amygdala would be disengaged when choices are established. Poor decision makers display a prefrontal hypoactivity associated with a persistent involvement of the amygdala, suggesting an alteration in the prefrontal cognitive control, combined with deficits in reward-based associations, leading to an impaired acquisition and/or re-updating of the incentive value of the options. Moreover, we demonstrated that inter-individual differences in the RGT are associated with distinct DA- and 5HT basal functions. Poor decision makers notably displayed (1) high DA- and 5HT-ergic metabolisms in IL, supporting their motor impulsivity and/or lower efficiency in goal-directed behavior and (2) a higher DA-ergic metabolism in the Nacc core, and lower 5HT-ergic in BLA, that could be related to their higher motivation, and the quality of reward-based associations. These data support the relationship between genetic polymorphisms inducing distinct basal monoaminergic functioning, and poor decision making as well as psychiatric disorders. All these cognitive/behavioural and neurobiological characteristics that make a consistent framework could be an endophenotype of mental disorders. Further experiments should examine the direct relationship between poor decision making and psychiatric disorders, such as addiction, and the genetic background related to this specific profile.

Submitted by Caroline Xavier (caroline.xavier@pucrs.br) on 2017-05-19T17:17:50Z No. of bitstreams: 1 TES_CAROLINE_DE_OLIVEIRA_CARDOSO_PARCIAL.pdf: 618311 bytes, checksum: 617af8f476a59ecf1a655ae941aa2963 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-05-19T17:17:50Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 TES_CAROLINE_DE_OLIVEIRA_CARDOSO_PARCIAL.pdf: 618311 bytes, checksum: 617af8f476a59ecf1a655ae941aa2963 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-01-20 / Coordena??o de Aperfei?oamento de Pessoal de N?vel Superior - CAPES / Conselho Nacional de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento Cient?fico e Tecnol?gico - CNPq / Funda??o de Amparo ? Pesquisa do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul (FAPERGS) / There is relative consensus that low level and quality of education are limiting factors of a country?s growth. Statistics show that many students have difficulties in learning or do not display the necessary abilities to succeed academically. Trying to reduce such difficulties, neuropsychology has developed remediation and rehabilitation interventions. There is, however, a need to invest in intervention programs that promote cognitive health and stimulate neurocognitive skills among children. These programs may potentiate cognitive processes and lead to short and long term benefits. Evidence shows that the executive functions (EF) have a crucial role in education, and are relevant in learning and in autoregulatory behavior. Given this context, the objective of this thesis was to develop and verify the effectiveness of an early and preventive neuropsychological intervention program with the intent of stimulating the EF among Elementary School students. The program was called Program of Neuropsychological Stimulation of Cognition in Students: emphasis on Executive Functions, or PENcE (an acronym from its original name in Portuguese, Programa de Estimula??o Neuropsicol?gica da Cogni??o em Escolares: ?nfase nas Fun??es Executivas). The First Study performed a systematic review of empirical studies about neuropsychological interventions of EF among children with typical development, looking for an overview that could guide the construction of the PENcE. Nineteen studies were found through the PRISMA method: most of them provided evidences that the children who participated in the intervention programs improved their executive functions. For the most part, they used computerized cognitive training to stimulate working memory. Other studies proposed a curricular approach to potentiate autoregulation. It was possible to observe that the studies are very heterogenic in terms of approach, methods, and closing measurement tools. Computerized trainings seem improve trained cognitive skills, but are limited in terms of transferring gains. Curricular programs seem more generalizable, with effects on transferring gains and functionality. The objective of the Second Study was to present the process of construction and content validity evidences for the PENcE. There were four steps involved in reaching that goal: internal stage of program organization; program construction; analysis by expert judges; and data integration and program finalization. All stages were important and contributed to improve the program. Furthermore, the assessment of the program (global and of each module) presented a level of agreement among judges equal to one, allowing for the achievement of content validity evidences. Finally, the Third Study investigated the effectiveness of the PENcE among children attending 3rd and 4th grades of Elementary School. It also analyzed the effects of transferring to other skills (executive, cognitive, academic, behavioral) beyond the main executive closings. From an initial sample of 160 children, 113 participated in the study. They were divided into two groups: experimental group (EG) (n=64) and control group (CG) (n=49). There were no differences between the groups before the intervention. After the study, the groups were compared, and the EG presented significant gains in inhibitory control, working memory, and abstract planning. There were transferring effects to other cognitive abilities (such as attention and fluid thinking), academic abilities (math and written skills), and changes in behavior (relationship and behavioral problems), and the overcame the CG. As a group, the findings from the three studies offer an early and preventive intervention program that has theoretical basis, has followed a rigorous construction process, and possesses content validity and effectiveness analysis. For future studies, it is suggested to extend and adapt the program to other age groups and to children who already present executive deficits, including learning difficulties and ADHD. Moreover, with the goal of contributing to public policies, it is recommended that the PENcE be implemented in public schools in developing countries, helping to bridge the gap between neuropsychology and education in a practical way. / Atualmente, h? relativo consenso de que o baixo n?vel educacional e a reduzida qualidade do processo de escolariza??o s?o fatores limitadores de crescimento de um pa?s. Al?m disso, as estimativas mostram que um elevado n?mero de alunos apresenta dificuldades de aprendizagem ou n?o apresenta habilidades necess?rias para ter sucesso acad?mico. Na tentativa de contribuir com a diminui??o de tais dificuldades, a neuropsicologia desenvolveu predominantemente interven??es de remedia??o e de reabilita??o. Destaca-se, contudo, a necessidade de se investir em programas de interven??es de promo??o ? sa?de cognitiva e de estimula??o de habilidades neurocognitivas em crian?as, uma vez que tais programas podem potencializar os processos cognitivos e levar a benef?cios de curto a longo prazo. Com o avan?o da neuropsicologia, h? evid?ncias de que as fun??es executivas (FE) t?m um papel crucial na educa??o e s?o relevantes para aprendizagem e comportamento autorregulat?rio. Frente a esse contexto, essa tese teve como objetivo desenvolver e verificar a efetividade de um programa de interven??o neuropsicol?gica precoce-preventiva em busca da estimula??o das FE em escolares no Ensino Fundamental I. Tal programa foi denominado Programa de Estimula??o Neuropsicol?gica da Cogni??o em Escolares: ?nfase nas fun??es executivas (PENcE). No primeiro estudo, a partir de uma revis?o sistem?tica, buscou-se caracterizar os estudos emp?ricos sobre interven??es neuropsicol?gicas de FE em crian?as com desenvolvimento t?pico, em busca de um panorama que norteasse a constru??o do PENcE. Seguindo o m?todo PRISMA, foram encontrados 19 estudos e a maioria forneceu evid?ncias que as crian?as que participaram dos programas de interven??o melhoraram suas habilidades executivas. A maioria utilizou o treino cognitivo computadorizado, envolvendo a estimula??o da mem?ria de trabalho. Outros propuseram uma abordagem curricular com intuito de potencializar a autorregula??o. Foi poss?vel verificar que os estudos s?o bastante heterog?neos em rela??o a tipos de abordagem, m?todos e instrumentos de medida de desfecho. Contudo, os treinos computadorizados parecem levar a uma melhora na habilidade cognitiva treinada, por?m, s?o limitados em termos de transfer?ncia de ganhos. Os programas de abordagem curricular, por sua vez, parecem mais generaliz?veis, com efeito de transfer?ncia e ganho na funcionalidade. No Estudo 2, objetivou-se apresentar o processo de constru??o e evid?ncias de validade de conte?do do PENcE. Para isso, quatro etapas foram realizadas: fase interna de organiza??o do programa; constru??o do programa; an?lise de ju?zes especialistas; integra??o dos dados e finaliza??o do programa. Todas as etapas foram essenciais e contribu?ram para aprimorar o programa. Al?m disso, evidenciou-se que a avalia??o global do programa e de cada um dos m?dulos apresentou um n?vel de concord?ncia de 1,0 entre os ju?zes, permitindo obter evid?ncias de validade de conte?do. Por fim, no Estudo 3 buscou-se investigar a efetividade do PENcE em crian?as do 3? ou 4? ano do Ensino Fundamental, bem como, analisar o efeito de transfer?ncia para outras habilidades executivas e cognitivas, habilidades acad?micas e comportamento, para al?m dos desfechos executivos principais. De uma amostra inicial de 160 crian?as, 113 participaram do estudo e foram subdivididas em dois grupos: grupo experimental (GE) (n=64) e grupo controle (GC) (n=49). Os grupos n?o se diferenciaram em nenhuma medida na avalia??o pr?-interven??o. Na compara??o dos grupos, verificou-se o GE apresentou ganhos significativos de controle inibit?rio, mem?ria de trabalho, planejamento abstrato. Houve efeito de transfer?ncia para outras habilidades cognitivas (como aten??o e racioc?nio fluido), habilidades acad?micas (matem?tica e escrita) e mudan?a no comportamento (relacionamento e problemas de conduta), sendo que o GE superou o GC. Em conjunto, os achados dos tr?s estudos contribuem disponibilizando um programa de interven??o precoce-preventiva, que possui embasamento te?rico, que seguiu um rigoroso processo de constru??o e que denota de validade de conte?do e de an?lise de efetividade. Sugere-se, para os pr?ximos estudos, estender e adaptar o programa para outras faixas et?rias e para grupos de crian?as que j? apresentam d?ficits executivos, como com transtornos espec?ficos de aprendizagem e TDAH. Al?m disso, visando a contribuir com as pol?ticas p?blicas, recomenda-se que o PENcE possa ser implementado em escolas p?blicas nos pa?ses em desenvolvimento, rumo a uma interface cada vez mais pr?tica entre neuropsicologia e educa??o.

The present study examines the relationship of emotional awareness to anticipatory psychophysiological markers and performance on the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT). The IGT is a computerized card game that simulates real-life decisions through uncertainty of reward or punishment. The participant’s goal is to make advantageous card choices. Anticipatory somatic markers of physiological arousal, like electrodermal activity and heart rate, have been proposed to bias decisions in the IGT. The central hypothesis is that a participant’s emotional awareness is related to their ability to make advantageous decisions through biasing psychophysiological responses. The Toronto Alexithymia Scale was used to assess each participant’s emotional awareness. Less emotional awareness was associated with enhanced performance on the IGT. However, anticipatory physiological arousal (electrodermal activity and heart rate) and emotional awareness yielded no significant relationships. Findings suggest a need for further research on cognitive models, such as the expectancy valence model, in relation to decision-making.

This study examined the theoretical basis for decision making behavior of patients with right or left temporal lobectomy and a control group when they participated in the Iowa Gambling Task. Two cognitive decision models, Expectancy Valence Model and Strategy Switching Heuristic Choice Model, were compared for best fit. The best fitting model was then chosen to provide the basis for parameter estimation (sources of decision making, i.e. cognitive, motivational, and response processes) and interpretation. Both models outperformed the baseline model. However comparison of G2 means between the two cognitive decision models showed the expectancy valence model having a higher mean and thus a better model between the two. Decision parameters were analyzed for the expectancy valence model. The analysis revealed that the parameters were not significant between the three groups. The data was simulated from the baseline model to determine whether the models are different from baseline.

Atualmente, diversos estudos sobre a tomada de decisão (TD) têm sido conduzidos, com base na Hipótese do Marcador Somático (HMS), utilizando como ferramenta de avaliação a Iowa Gambling Task (IGT). Neste contexto, esta tese teve por objetivo geral analisar o processo de TD, bem como a tarefa usualmente utilizada para mensurá-lo, a IGT. Visando a atender esta finalidade, três estudos foram conduzidos, buscando investigar o processo decisório a partir de diferentes aspectos. O primeiro deles discutiu a TD dentro de uma perspectiva do desenvolvimento, comparando adultos jovens e adultos idosos em seu comportamento de escolha. Já o segundo, tratou de investigar a possível influência de componentes de impulsividade e diferentes processos cognitivos, como a memória de trabalho, o aprendizado associativo e reverso e a atenção, no processo de tomar decisões. O terceiro e último estudo averiguou o efeito da cultura na tomada de decisões, comparando o desempenho de indivíduos brasileiros e norte-americanos na IGT. Os resultados do primeiro estudo evidenciaram que tanto adultos jovens quanto adultos idosos apresentam um comportamento guiado, principalmente, pela expectativa de uma baixa freqüência de punições. Não houve diferenças significativas entre os dois grupos etários, quanto à quantidade de cartas retiradas de cada baralho, embora cada grupo tenha revelado um processo distinto de aprendizagem ao longo da tarefa. No segundo estudo, padrões distintos de correlações nos dois grupos etários foram verificados. Em se tratando dos adultos jovens, uma influência do aprendizado associativo e reverso no processo de TD mensurado pela IGT (conforme o critério tradicional de análise) foi observada. Ao se considerar as correlações constatadas nos participantes adultos idosos, averiguou-se uma associação entre o subteste dígitos (ordem direta e inversa) e os escores com base na freqüência (punição) alcançados na IGT. Finalmente, os achados do terceiro estudo apresentaram diferenças importantes entre os dois grupos culturais, revelando que tanto adultos jovens quanto adultos idosos norte-americanos atingem escores mais elevados na IGT. Considerados em conjunto, os resultados mostram que a IGT é uma tarefa complexa, sofrendo a influência, em alguma extensão, de outros processos cognitivos e de aspectos culturais e desenvolvimentais. / Several studies on decision making (DM) have been recently conducted, based on the Somatic Marker Hypothesis (SMH) and using the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) as assessment tool. In that context, this dissertation aimed at analyzing the DM process and the task commonly used to measure it, i.e., IGT. To achieve that goal, three studies were performed to investigate the DM process based on different aspects. The first discussed DM within a development perspective, comparing young and older individuals in their choice behavior. The second investigated the possible influence of impulsivity components and other more basic cognitive processes, such as working memory, reverse learning and attention, on the DM process. Finally, the third study verified the effect of DM culture, comparing the performance of Brazilian and American individuals in IGT. The results of the first study demonstrated that both young and elderly individuals choose cards in decks "B" and "D," which indicates a behavior that is mainly guided by the expectation of a low frequency of punishments. There were no significant differences between both age groups as to the amount of cards taken from each deck, although each group has shown a different learning process during the task. In the second study, different correlation patterns between the age groups were observed. With regard to the young individuals, the performance in reversal learning was correlated with the score obtained in IGT, showing the importance of the ability of associating stimuli and further reversion into a proper choice process during the task. As for the older individuals, a correlation between the digit span and the IGT was found. Finally, the findings of the third study had major differences between both cultural groups, demonstrating that American young and elderly individuals reached higher IGT scores. Considered as a group, the results show that IGT is a complex task and, to a certain extent, is influenced by other cognitive processes and cultural and developmental aspects.

Atualmente, diversos estudos sobre a tomada de decisão (TD) têm sido conduzidos, com base na Hipótese do Marcador Somático (HMS), utilizando como ferramenta de avaliação a Iowa Gambling Task (IGT). Neste contexto, esta tese teve por objetivo geral analisar o processo de TD, bem como a tarefa usualmente utilizada para mensurá-lo, a IGT. Visando a atender esta finalidade, três estudos foram conduzidos, buscando investigar o processo decisório a partir de diferentes aspectos. O primeiro deles discutiu a TD dentro de uma perspectiva do desenvolvimento, comparando adultos jovens e adultos idosos em seu comportamento de escolha. Já o segundo, tratou de investigar a possível influência de componentes de impulsividade e diferentes processos cognitivos, como a memória de trabalho, o aprendizado associativo e reverso e a atenção, no processo de tomar decisões. O terceiro e último estudo averiguou o efeito da cultura na tomada de decisões, comparando o desempenho de indivíduos brasileiros e norte-americanos na IGT. Os resultados do primeiro estudo evidenciaram que tanto adultos jovens quanto adultos idosos apresentam um comportamento guiado, principalmente, pela expectativa de uma baixa freqüência de punições. Não houve diferenças significativas entre os dois grupos etários, quanto à quantidade de cartas retiradas de cada baralho, embora cada grupo tenha revelado um processo distinto de aprendizagem ao longo da tarefa. No segundo estudo, padrões distintos de correlações nos dois grupos etários foram verificados. Em se tratando dos adultos jovens, uma influência do aprendizado associativo e reverso no processo de TD mensurado pela IGT (conforme o critério tradicional de análise) foi observada. Ao se considerar as correlações constatadas nos participantes adultos idosos, averiguou-se uma associação entre o subteste dígitos (ordem direta e inversa) e os escores com base na freqüência (punição) alcançados na IGT. Finalmente, os achados do terceiro estudo apresentaram diferenças importantes entre os dois grupos culturais, revelando que tanto adultos jovens quanto adultos idosos norte-americanos atingem escores mais elevados na IGT. Considerados em conjunto, os resultados mostram que a IGT é uma tarefa complexa, sofrendo a influência, em alguma extensão, de outros processos cognitivos e de aspectos culturais e desenvolvimentais. / Several studies on decision making (DM) have been recently conducted, based on the Somatic Marker Hypothesis (SMH) and using the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) as assessment tool. In that context, this dissertation aimed at analyzing the DM process and the task commonly used to measure it, i.e., IGT. To achieve that goal, three studies were performed to investigate the DM process based on different aspects. The first discussed DM within a development perspective, comparing young and older individuals in their choice behavior. The second investigated the possible influence of impulsivity components and other more basic cognitive processes, such as working memory, reverse learning and attention, on the DM process. Finally, the third study verified the effect of DM culture, comparing the performance of Brazilian and American individuals in IGT. The results of the first study demonstrated that both young and elderly individuals choose cards in decks "B" and "D," which indicates a behavior that is mainly guided by the expectation of a low frequency of punishments. There were no significant differences between both age groups as to the amount of cards taken from each deck, although each group has shown a different learning process during the task. In the second study, different correlation patterns between the age groups were observed. With regard to the young individuals, the performance in reversal learning was correlated with the score obtained in IGT, showing the importance of the ability of associating stimuli and further reversion into a proper choice process during the task. As for the older individuals, a correlation between the digit span and the IGT was found. Finally, the findings of the third study had major differences between both cultural groups, demonstrating that American young and elderly individuals reached higher IGT scores. Considered as a group, the results show that IGT is a complex task and, to a certain extent, is influenced by other cognitive processes and cultural and developmental aspects.

Atualmente, diversos estudos sobre a tomada de decisão (TD) têm sido conduzidos, com base na Hipótese do Marcador Somático (HMS), utilizando como ferramenta de avaliação a Iowa Gambling Task (IGT). Neste contexto, esta tese teve por objetivo geral analisar o processo de TD, bem como a tarefa usualmente utilizada para mensurá-lo, a IGT. Visando a atender esta finalidade, três estudos foram conduzidos, buscando investigar o processo decisório a partir de diferentes aspectos. O primeiro deles discutiu a TD dentro de uma perspectiva do desenvolvimento, comparando adultos jovens e adultos idosos em seu comportamento de escolha. Já o segundo, tratou de investigar a possível influência de componentes de impulsividade e diferentes processos cognitivos, como a memória de trabalho, o aprendizado associativo e reverso e a atenção, no processo de tomar decisões. O terceiro e último estudo averiguou o efeito da cultura na tomada de decisões, comparando o desempenho de indivíduos brasileiros e norte-americanos na IGT. Os resultados do primeiro estudo evidenciaram que tanto adultos jovens quanto adultos idosos apresentam um comportamento guiado, principalmente, pela expectativa de uma baixa freqüência de punições. Não houve diferenças significativas entre os dois grupos etários, quanto à quantidade de cartas retiradas de cada baralho, embora cada grupo tenha revelado um processo distinto de aprendizagem ao longo da tarefa. No segundo estudo, padrões distintos de correlações nos dois grupos etários foram verificados. Em se tratando dos adultos jovens, uma influência do aprendizado associativo e reverso no processo de TD mensurado pela IGT (conforme o critério tradicional de análise) foi observada. Ao se considerar as correlações constatadas nos participantes adultos idosos, averiguou-se uma associação entre o subteste dígitos (ordem direta e inversa) e os escores com base na freqüência (punição) alcançados na IGT. Finalmente, os achados do terceiro estudo apresentaram diferenças importantes entre os dois grupos culturais, revelando que tanto adultos jovens quanto adultos idosos norte-americanos atingem escores mais elevados na IGT. Considerados em conjunto, os resultados mostram que a IGT é uma tarefa complexa, sofrendo a influência, em alguma extensão, de outros processos cognitivos e de aspectos culturais e desenvolvimentais. / Several studies on decision making (DM) have been recently conducted, based on the Somatic Marker Hypothesis (SMH) and using the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) as assessment tool. In that context, this dissertation aimed at analyzing the DM process and the task commonly used to measure it, i.e., IGT. To achieve that goal, three studies were performed to investigate the DM process based on different aspects. The first discussed DM within a development perspective, comparing young and older individuals in their choice behavior. The second investigated the possible influence of impulsivity components and other more basic cognitive processes, such as working memory, reverse learning and attention, on the DM process. Finally, the third study verified the effect of DM culture, comparing the performance of Brazilian and American individuals in IGT. The results of the first study demonstrated that both young and elderly individuals choose cards in decks "B" and "D," which indicates a behavior that is mainly guided by the expectation of a low frequency of punishments. There were no significant differences between both age groups as to the amount of cards taken from each deck, although each group has shown a different learning process during the task. In the second study, different correlation patterns between the age groups were observed. With regard to the young individuals, the performance in reversal learning was correlated with the score obtained in IGT, showing the importance of the ability of associating stimuli and further reversion into a proper choice process during the task. As for the older individuals, a correlation between the digit span and the IGT was found. Finally, the findings of the third study had major differences between both cultural groups, demonstrating that American young and elderly individuals reached higher IGT scores. Considered as a group, the results show that IGT is a complex task and, to a certain extent, is influenced by other cognitive processes and cultural and developmental aspects.

Binge drinking (BD) entails excessive alcohol intake in a short time period. Despite numerous negative outcomes associated with BD and efforts to curtail it, rates remain steady. Thus, it is important to identify "who" binge drinks and "why" it occurs. Drawing from past research, I sought to replicate the link between trait narcissism and BD; moreover, I examined if overconfidence and confidence-based risk-taking assessed via the Georgia Gambling Task (GGT), explained why they did so. The results generally supported my hypotheses. As expected, narcissism related to poor GGT performance and high levels of BD; likewise, poor GGT performance related to BD. GGT performance accounted for (i.e., mediated) the narcissism-to-BD relation, but only partially, in subsequent regression analyses. In the discussion I focus on the social and clinical relevance of these findings especially for university interventions, parents, and therapists. I also discuss avenues for future research including other potential mediators.

The relationship between Executive Functions and Peer Rejection was explored. Thirty-Five students in an urban elementary school, (mean 10.7 years of age (sd=2.8), 34% male, and 88% African American) completed measures of executive functions: KABC-II Rover, The Wisconsin Card Sort and NEPSY-II Statue (below age 9) or The Iowa Gambling Task (age 9 and up). Classmates reported who was not a preferred play mate: a measure of rejection. Executive Functions were not significantly related to Rejection across the sample, but among the children with the lowest Executive Functions, The Wisconsin Card Sort was significantly negatively related to Rejection (-0.61, p = .04) suggesting poor Cognitive Flexibility may be a risk factor for Rejection. Performance on the Iowa Gambling Task was found to be positively correlated with Rejection (0.4, p = .008) suggesting that high impulse control may also be a risk factor for rejection among adolescents. This was consistent with a finding of a positive correlation between Office Discipline Referrals and popularity (.4, p = .008) among the sample. Implications for practice are also discussed including the difficulty of managing behavior when bad behavior is related to popularity. Keywords: Iowa Gambling Task, Wisconsin Card Sort, Peer Rejection, Executive Functions, Urban children. / School Psychology