Tesis por compendio de publicaciones / La gran preocupación que existe actualmente alrededor del peso corporal, está colaborando a la proliferación de innumerables dietas de adelgazamiento entre las personas “no satisfechas con su peso”. En este sentido hemos estudiado la obesidad desde un punto de vista cronobiológico, para poder dilucidar la importancia que tiene la alteración circadiana de ciertos ritmos biológicos en la ganancia de peso o la no pérdida del mismo. El acúmulo de grasa corporal y el grado de lipogénesis en el tejido adiposo podría ser diferente a distintas horas del día, ingiriendo las mismas calorías. A su vez uno de los aspectos más interesantes, es poder conseguir una caracterización cronobiológica de cada individuo, establecer mejoras en las terapias de comportamiento alimentario, introducir nuevos índices que permitan detectar pacientes de riesgo y poder establecer pautas alimentarias y hábitos de vida individualizados que ayuden a estos pacientes a alcanzar la meta de peso propuesta. / The great controversy now there about body weight, is collaborating with the proliferation of countless diets among people "not satisfied with their weight." In this sense, we have studied obesity from a chronobiological viewpoint, to elucidate the importance of the alteration of circadian biological rhythms in weight gain or no loss. The accumulation of body fat and the degree of lipogenesis in adipose tissue may be different n accordance with the time of day, even eating the same calories. In turn one of the most interesting aspect, is to be able to characterize the individual chronobiology of each patient, establish improved therapies feeding behavior, introducing new indices to detect patients at risk and to establish dietary patterns and lifestyle habits that help these patients to achieve the proposed weight goal.

No description available.

In the present study, the ease of rearing, short generation time and molecular research tools available for the zebrafish model (Danio rerio, Hamilton) were exploited to investigate transcriptional regulation in relation to feeding, photoperiod and experimental selection. Chapter 2 describes transcriptional regulation in fast skeletal muscle following fasting and a single satiating meal of bloodworms. Changes in transcript abundance were investigated in relation to the food content in the gut. Using qPCR, the transcription patterns of 16 genes comprising the insulin-like growth factor (IGF) system were characterized, and differential regulation between some of the paralogues was recorded. For example, feeding was associated with upregulation of igf1a and igf2b at 3 and 6h after the single-meal was offered, respectively, whereas igf1b was not detected in skeletal muscle. On the other hand, fasting triggered the upregulation of the igf1 receptors and igfbp1a/b, the only binding proteins whose transcription was responsive to a single-satiating meal. In addition to the investigation of the IGF-axis, an agnostic approach was used to discover other genes involved in transcriptional response to nutritional status, by employing a whole-genome microarray containing 44K probes. This resulted in the discovery of 147 genes in skeletal muscle that were differentially expressed between fasting and satiation. Ubiquitin-ligases involved in proteasome-mediated protein degradation, and antiproliferative and pro-apoptotic genes were among the genes upregulated during fasting, whereas satiation resulted in an upregulation of genes involved in protein synthesis and folding, and a gene highly correlated with growth in mice and fish, the enzyme ornithine decarboxylase 1. Zebrafish exhibit circadian rhythms of breeding, locomotor activity and feeding that are controlled by molecular clock mechanisms in central and peripheral organs. In chapter 3 the transcription of 17 known clock genes was investigated in skeletal muscle in relation to the photoperiod and food content in the gut. The hypothesis that myogenic regulatory factors and components of the IGF-pathway were clock-controlled was also tested. Positive (clock1 and bmal1 paralogues) and negative oscillators (cry1a and per genes) showed a strong circadian pattern in skeletal muscle in anti-phase with each other. MyoD was not clock-controlled in zebrafish in contrast to findings in mice, whereas myf6 showed a circadian pattern of expression in phase with clock and bmal. Similarly, the expression of two IGF binding proteins (igfbp3 and 5b) was circadian and in phase with the positive oscillators clock and bmal. It was also found that some paralogues responded differently to photoperiod. For example, clock1a was 3-fold more responsive than clock1b. Cry1b did not show a circadian pattern of expression. These patterns of expression provide evidence that the molecular clock mechanisms in skeletal muscle are synchronized with the molecular clock in central pacemaker organs such as eyes and the pineal gland. Using the short generation time of zebrafish the effects of selective breeding for body size at age were investigated and are described in chapter 4. Three rounds of artificial selection for small (S-lineage) and large body size (L-lineage) resulted in zebrafish populations whose average standard length were, respectively, 2% lower and 10% higher than an unselected control lineage (U-lineage). Fish from the L-lineage showed an increased egg production and bigger egg size with more yolk, possibly contributing to the larger body size observed in the early larval stage (6dpf) of fish from this lineage. Fish from S- and L-lineage exposed to fasting and refeeding showed very similar feed intake, providing evidence that experimental selection did not cause significant changes in appetite control. Investigation of the expression of the IGF-axis and nutritionally-response in skeletal muscle after fasting and refeeding revealed that the pattern of expression was not different between the selected lineages, but that a differential responsiveness was observed in a limited number of genes, providing evidence that experimental selection might have changed the way fish allocate the energy acquired through feeding. For example, a constitutive higher expression of igf1a was recorded in skeletal muscle of fish from the L-lineage whereas igfbp1a/b transcripts were higher in muscle of fish from the S-lineage. These findings demonstrate the rapid changes in growth and transcriptional response in skeletal muscle of zebrafish after only three rounds of selection. Furthermore, it provides evidences that differences in growth during embryonic and larval stages might be related to higher levels of energy deposited during oogenesis, whereas differences in adult fish were better explained by changes in energy allocation instead of energy acquisition. In chapter 5 the main findings made during this study and their impact on the literature are discussed.

A ativação do oxigênio molecular em suas espécies reativas é uma constante ameaça aos organismos fotossintéticos, uma vez que os cloroplastos são compartimentos celulares altamente susceptíveis ao estresse oxidativo. Sob condições normais, a geração de ERO nestas organelas é lenta e controlada, embora possa ser exacerbada pela exposição a xenobióticos e outros fatores de estresse ambiental. Como a intoxicação por metals poluentes é uma importante fonte de estresse oxidativo em sistemas biológicos, a resistência de organismos fotossintéticos ao estresse metálico deve ser dependente de adaptações bioquímicas que previnam o insulto oxidativo em seus cloroplastos. Com o intuito de investigar esta hipótese, os níveis de antioxidantes cloroplásticos e os padrões de indução da enzima SOD foram estudados no dinoflagelado marinho G. polyedra, sob diferentes modelos de estresse metálico. Primeiramente, os efeitos dos metals poluentes Hg2+, Cd2+, Pb2+ e Cu2+, sobre alguns aspectos fisiológicos deste dinoflagelado, foram avaliados por bioensaios de toxicidade. G. polyedra se mostrou altamente sensível a estes metals, os quais causaram aumentos significativos de mortalidade celular, alta frequência de flashes bioluminescentes e formação de cistos assexuais, em concentrações relativamente baixas. A escala de toxicidade encontrada foi Hg2+> Cu2+>Cd2+> Pb2+, de acordo com seus respectivos valores de CE50. O encistamento parece ser uma importante estratégia celular de resistência à toxicidade de metals, em particular a Pb2+ e Cu2+, uma vez que as células tratadas com estes metals foram capazes de retomar, parcial ou completamente, o estado fisiológico normal quando inoculadas em meio livre de metals tóxicos. Com base nos bioensaios de toxicidade, dois modelos de estresse metálico, crônico e agudo, foram estabelecidos e o balanço oxidativo, em cloroplastos isolados de G. polyedra, avaliado nestas condições experimentais. Diferentes respostas antioxidantes foram verificadas de acordo com o metal e o modelo de estresse aplicado. Em geral, células cronicamente expostas a metals exibiram aumentos de atividade das enzimas antioxidantes SOD e Apx, alto poder redutor e níveis reduzidos do carotenóide peridinina, enquanto nenhuma alteração foi observada quanto aos níveis de β-caroteno. Em contraste, células submetidas a estresse metálico agudo exibiram níveis dobrados de β-caroteno, embora nenhuma alteração significativa tenha sido observada para os demais antioxidantes. A correlação entre o tratamento agudo e a instalação de estresse oxidativo foi inferida pelo consumo de oxigênio exacerbado e menor poder redutor, observados em células expostas aos metals. Em decorrência do estado pró-oxidante, aumentos de lesões oxidativas sobre lipídeos e proteínas cloroplásticas foram detectados predominantemente em células sob tratamento agudo. Respostas específicas da enzima SOD também foram estudadas, observando-se um aumento dose-dependente em sua atividade, que ocorreu nas primeiras horas de exposição aos metals. Das três isoformas detectadas em G. polyedra, apenas FeSOD e MnSOD foram induzidas pelos metals, enquanto os níveis celulares de CuZnSOD não variaram significativamente, nas mesmas condições experimentais. Além da indução por metals, estas duas isoformas também mostraram ser sintetizadas circadianamente em G. polyedra. A isoforma FeSOD foi detectada em cloroplastos deste dinoflagelado e a clonagem parcial do seu cDNA codificador, realizada por técnicas baseadas em PCR. Análises preliminares de filogenia molecular com esta isoforma cloroplástica de G. polyedra indicaram uma alta similaridade com FeSOD cianobacteriana, corroborando a teoria endosimbiôntica para a origem dos cloroplastos modernos. Induções de FeSOD, por exposição aos metals poluentes, incluíram aumentos nos seus níveis de mRNA, revelando um controle transcricional positivo, inédito em G. polyedra. Com relação à oscilação circadiana desta isoforma cloroplástica, níveis constantes de transcritos de FeSOD foram detectados ao longo de 24 h, evidenciando um controle circadiano distinto, ao nível traducional. A partir das informações obtidas nesta tese, conclui-se que os metals poluentes avaliados são extremamente tóxicos a G. polyedra e capazes de induzir um estresse oxidativo em seus cloroplastos, especialmente sob condições agudas de exposição. Durante o estresse metálico crônico, entretanto, a manutenção de uma alta capacidade antioxidante, incluindo o aumento imediato da expressão da FeSOD, é uma estratégia relevante na atenuação das lesões oxidativas em lipídeos e proteínas, prevenindo possíveis danos estruturais e perda de funções cloroplásticas. Esta modulação de antioxidantes cloroplásticos sugere que a adaptação bioquímica de G. polyedra inclui respostas rápidas e específicas ao sítio subcelular onde o estresse oxidativo é instalado, processo este importante na resistência deste dinoflagelado à exposição a metals poluentes. As diferentes possibilidades de regulação da FeSOD, reveladas neste trabalho, salientam ainda a importância desta isoforma na manutenção do equilíbrio oxidativo cloroplástico durante adversidades ambientais e lançam novas perspectivas a respeito do controle de expressão gênica, em G. polyedra. O presente trabalho contribui, portanto, para o entendimento dos componentes bioquímicos e moleculares de processos adaptativos em algas. / Oxygen activation to reactive species is a constant threat to photosynthetic organisms since chloroplasts are cell compartments highly susceptible to oxidative stress. Although moderate at normal conditions, the ROS generating-processes in such organelles can be highly accelerated by xenobiotics and some other environmental factors. Because the intoxication with pollutant metals is an important source of oxidative stress in biological systems, resistance of photosynthetic organisms to metal stress might be dependent on biochemical adaptations that prevent oxidative insult within their plastids. To investigate such hypothesis, the oxidative balance of chloroplasts and the induction pattern of the antioxidant enzyme SOD were evaluated in the marine dinoflagellate G. polyedra, under different conditions of metal stress. At first, toxicity bioassays based on survival were carried out with G. polyedra cells exposed to the pollutant metals Hg2+, Cd2+, Pb2+ and Cu2+. Cell viability significantly decreased under exposure to these metals, which were also able to stimulate the frequency of bioluminescent flashes and induce encystment of this dinoflagellate. The toxicity scale found to G. polyedra was Hg2+> Cu2+>Cd2+> Pb2+, based on the EC50 values of each metal. Induction of resting cysts appears to be an important strategy for cell survival, particularly during Pb2+ and Cu2+ treatments, since cells partially or completely excysted within 96 h after metal removal from the media, respectively. Chronic and acute models of metal stress were applied, based on the toxicity bioassays, and the oxidative balance in isolated chloroplasts of G. polyedra examined. Different antioxidant responses were verified according to the metal and model of stress. Cells chronically exposed to metals exhibited high activity of the antioxidant enzymes SOD and Apx, high GSH content and reduced peridinin levels, whereas no significant changes were detected in the β-carotene content. In contrast, cells subjected to acute metal stress displayed twice as much β-carotene but only slight variation in SOD, Apx and peridinin levels. The correlation of acute metal treatment and oxidative stress was inferred from the higher oxygen uptake and decreased GSH pool found in treated cells. In addition, increased oxidative damage to proteins and lipids occurred mainly in cells under acute stress. The specific responses of SOD to pollutant metal stress were also examined. A dose-dependent induction of SOD activity was found in the first hours of metal treatment. Among the three SOD isoforms detected in crude extracts of G. polyedra, FeSOD and MnSOD were the inducible ones, while non-significant changes in CuZnSOD levels were verified. Furthermore, both isoforms displayed a circadian rhythm of synthesis in this dinoflagellate. The FeSOD isoform was detected in chloroplasts of G. polyedra, and the partial sequence of its cDNA obtained by PCR-based cloning techniques. Preliminary analysis of molecular phylogeny indicated that dinoflagellate and other plastid FeSOD are highly similar to cyanobacterial FeSOD, reinforcing the theory for the endosymbiotic origin of modem chloroplasts. Induction of FeSOD by metal exposure included increases in its mRNA levels, revealing a novel mechanism of positive transcriptional regulation in G. polyedra. In contrast, the mRNA levels of FeSOD remained constant through out the circadian cycle, indicating a distinct circadian control at the translational level. We described here that the pollutant metals analyzed are extremely toxic and able to induce oxidative stress in chloroplasts of G. polyedra, particularly under acute conditions. However, under chronic conditions of metal stress, the maintenance of a high antioxidant capacity, with increased FeSOD expression, is a relevant strategy to prevent structural damage and loss of chloroplastic functions as a consequence of oxidative insult. Such antioxidant modulation within chloroplasts suggests that biochemical adaptation in G. polyedra involve immediate and specific responses at the subcellular site where oxidative stress is triggered. This adaptive process could contribute to the overall resistance of this dinoflagellate to pollutant metal stress. Moreover, the distinct levels of regulation found for FeSOD indicate the important role of this isoform in the oxidative balance of chloroplasts, and provide new insight on gene regulation in G. polyedra. The present work provides the first steps in the elucidation of the biochemical and molecular components of adaptive processes in algae.