Selenoprotein H (SELENOH) is a nucleolar oxidoreductase with DNA binding properties whose function is not well understood. To determine the functional and physiological roles of SELENOH, a knockout of SELENOH was generated in cell lines using CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genomic deletion and in mice by targeted disruption. Based on the sequenced genome, the results of deduced protein sequences indicated various forms of mutants in the CRISPR/Cas9-mediated knockout, including a frame-shift by aberrant splicing and truncated SELENOH by early termination of the translation process. Loss of SELENOH in HeLa cells induced slow cell proliferation, the formation of giant multinucleated cells, accumulation of unrepaired DNA damage and oxidative stress, and cellular senescence. SELENOH cells were enlarged and possessed a single large nucleolus. Atomic force microscope showed increased stiffness in the nucleoli of SELENOH knockout cells, which suggests that SELENOH maintains the flexible structure of the nucleolus. Furthermore, the knockout of SELENOH led to a large-scale reorganization of the nucleolar architecture with the movement of nucleolar protein into nucleolar cap regions in response to oxidative stress. The nucleolar reorganization is dependent on ATM signaling. Altogether, results suggest that SELENOH appears to be a sensor of oxidative stress that plays critical roles in redox regulation and genome maintenance within the nucleolus. To determine the physiological role of SELENOH in vivo, Selenoh knockout mice were generated by targeted deletion through homologous recombination. Selenoh+/− mice were fertile and phenotypically indistinguishable from wild-type littermates. Results from matings of Selenoh+/− mice showed a significantly reduced fraction of Selenoh−/− offspring on the basis of Mendelian segregation. Since some Selenoh−/− were born, it is likely that Selenoh is a partially essential gene in mice. Live-born Selenoh−/− mice were viable and born without apparent phenotypes. Selenoh−/− mice at 2-month of age showed increased GPX activity in the lung but not in the brain and liver. Furthermore, loss of Selenoh resulted in the aggravated formation of aberrant crypt foci in the colon of Selenoh+/− mice that were injected with azoxymethane. Altogether, SELENOH has critical roles in embryogenesis and colorectal carcinogenesis.

Genomic stability refers to an organism’s ability to maintain and pass forward its genetic information. There are a raft of proteins and pathways whose sole purpose is maintaining this stability through swiftly replicating DNA as well as accurately repairing damage caused through contact with endogenous and exogenous DNA damaging elements. This study will focus on the structural aspects of two proteins that play a part in different areas of genome maintenance. Flap Endonuclease 1 (FEN 1) works in DNA replication, where it is tasked with removing a small RNA flap that is created during Okazaki fragment formation. This flap removal is essential to mature these fragments into one continuous strand of nascent DNA. Using the archeon Pyrococcus abyssi (Pab) as a model system has the advantage of possessing simple replicative machinery, whilst bearing striking similarities with the human system. Pab is a hyperthermophilic, piezophile meaning it thrives in conditions of high temperature and pressure. DNA-dependent protein kinase (DNA-PK) is a holoenzyme that plays a role in the Non Homologous End Joining (NHEJ) pathway by repairing DNA double strand breaks (DSB’s). In cancer therapy, a patient is exposed to DNA damaging elements, leading to an ever-increasing population of DSBs. If an inhibitor of DNA-PKcs were introduced along with this therapy it could potentiate its effect, as the cancerous cells will be less able to repair the damage. The aim of this part of the study is to determine a protocol to generate pure, soluble, correctly folded protein for the purposes of biophysical characterisation and X-ray crystallographic structural studies.

La réplication de l’ADN est un processus essentiel qui doit avoir lieu une seule fois par cycle cellulaire. Ce processus hautement régulé et très conservé chez les eucaryotes, assure une complète duplication et donc une totale transmission de l’information génétique. Des changements dans le programme de réplication, qui est définit par le moment d’activation et la fréquence d’utilisation de l’ensemble des origines, ont été observés lors du développement, après induction de la différenciation chez des cellules souches embryonnaires de souris, ainsi que dans un grand nombre de cancers. La régulation de la réplication de l’ADN est donc un processus essentiel pour le maintien de l’intégrité du génome et le programme de réplication pourrait y contribuer de manière importante. Cependant, en dépit d’un grand nombre de travaux sur les différentes protéines et modifications impliquées dans la sélection des origines, les principaux déterminants ainsi que leur interdépendance restent étonnement méconnus. Mon projet de thèse se focalise sur l’identification des paramètres clés qui régulent le programme de réplication, en utilisant comme modèle la levure de fission, Schizosaccharomyces pombe. Premièrement, je me suis intéressé au rôle de la dynamique de l’activité des CDKs lors de la phase G1 ainsi que de leur niveau d’activité à la frontière G1/S dans la sélection des origines. J’ai démontré que changer la longueur de la phase G1 à travers la modulation de l’activité des CDKs se traduit par une modification du profil de réplication tout au long du génome. Plus précisément, les origines inefficaces sont utilisées plus fréquemment alors que les origines efficaces ont une activité réduite. D’un autre coté, nous avons également montré que le nombre d’origines actives pour une phase S donnée, dépend du niveau d’activité des CDKs lors de l’entrée en phase S, suggérant ainsi que cette activité est un facteur limitant dans la régulation de l’initiation de la réplication. Dans un second temps, j’ai utilisé une approche dans laquelle les cellules établissent un programme de réplication de novo après la sortie de quiescence, afin d’étudier les premières étapes de la sélection des origines de réplication, en se focalisant sur l’importance du recrutement de ORC (Origin Recognition Complex) aux origines. L’analyse du profil de liaison de ORC révèle une forte corrélation entre le niveau de liaison de ORC aux origines et l’efficacité de ces dernières, démontrant pour la première fois que ORC n’est pas simplement un marqueur des sites d’initiation potentiels mais plutôt un déterminant crucial dans l’établissement du programme de réplication. Finalement, j’ai observé que les origines efficaces ont tendance à être organisées en groupes tout au long du génome, suggérant que l’organisation chromosomique pourrait être importante dans la sélection des origines de réplication. Afin d’étudier cela, j’ai généré des souches contenant différents réarrangements chromosomiques. Nos résultats indiquent que la position relative d’une origines par rapport à son contexte chromosomique, joue un rôle important dans la régulation de son efficacité et que des régions distinctes peuvent avoir des effets opposés sur la sélection des origines en étant soit activatrices ou inhibitrices. / DNA replication is an essential process that occurs only once in a cell cycle before cell division. Replication is highly regulated through conserved mechanisms to ensure the faithful duplication and transmission of genetic information. Interestingly, changes in the replication program, defined by the temporal and spatial pattern of replication origin activation, have been observed during development in distinct cell types, after induction of differentiation in mouse embryonic stem cells, and in various cancers. The regulation of DNA replication is therefore essential for ensuring the integrity of the genome, and the program of origin activation may be an important contributor to this process. However, despite a large body of work on the many enzymes and modifications involved in origin selection, the critical determinants as well as their interdependence remain surprisingly unknown. My thesis project focuses on identifying the key parameters that regulate the replication program, taking advantage of unique approaches using the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe as a model system. First, we investigated the qualitative and quantitative aspects of the role of CDK activity in determining the program of DNA replication. We demonstrated that changing the length of G1 phase through modulation of CDK activity has an impact on the profile of replication initiation along the chromosome. More specifically, inefficient origins show increases in their usage, while efficient origins have reduced activities. Moreover, we have shown that cells are highly sensitive to differences in CDK activity levels at the G1/S transition, which result in genome-wide changes in replication initiation across the entire spectrum of efficiencies. This suggests that CDK activity is a dose-dependent, limiting factor in the regulation of origin usage. Thus, our study establishes the integration of both temporal and quantitative regulation of CDK activity as a key determinant in defining the program of genome duplication. Second, using an approach in which cells establish a replication program de novo after exit from quiescence, we investigated the critical first steps of origin selection. We focused on the importance of the essential Origin Recognition Complex, whose recruitment to origins is required for the subsequent assembly of replication complexes. Our analysis reveals a strong correspondence between the level of ORC binding at origins and the efficiency of these origins in both cells exiting quiescence as well as those in vegetative growth conditions. Therefore, we demonstrate for the first time that ORC is not simply a marker of potential initiation sites but rather a crucial determinant in the program of origin usage.Finally, our observation that efficient origins are organized in distinct clusters in the de novo replication program suggested that chromosomal organization may be important for origin selection. To address this question, we have generated strains containing a series of distinct chromosomal rearrangements and assessed their origin efficiency profiles. Our findings indicate that the localization of an origin with respect to its chromosomal context plays an important role in regulating its efficiency. Moreover, distinct regions may have different effects on origin selection by being permissive or inhibitory for origin activity. Those observations could indicate a role for the spatial organization of the genome in origin selection and thus led us to study chromosome and nuclear organization in conditions where the replication program is different.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / The loss of genomic stability associated with genetic deterioration is one of the many important aspects for the development of carcinomas. The genome maintenance mechanisms (GMM) ensure the integrity of DNA and cell survival. They are composed of genetic pathways that include the cell cycle checkpoints, DNA repair and recombination, programmed cell death (apoptosis) and senescence. The purpose of the work is to investigate the activity of these pathways in genome maintenance in diseases related to the evolution of cancer. For this public data from microarrays obtained from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database were used. We analized the expression of proteins and genome maintenance pathways that are altered in pre-cancerous and cancerous tissues related to genomic instability and may lead to tumor progression. The results allowed a quantitative characterization of an anti-cancer barrier in the tumor evolution proposed in the literature. / A perda da estabilidade genômica associada com a deterioração genética é um dos muitos aspectos importantes na evolução dos carcinomas. São os mecanismos de manutenção do genoma (GMM) que garantem a integridade do DNA e a sobrevivência da célula. Eles são compostos por vias genéticas que incluem os pontos de controle do ciclo celular, o reparo e a recombinação do DNA, a morte celular programada (apoptose) e a senescência. O objetivo deste trabalho é investigar a atividade dessas vias e genes de manutenção do genoma em doenças relacionadas à evolução do câncer. Para isso foram usados dados públicos de microarranjos obtidos do banco de dados Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO). Analisamos a expressão das proteínas e vias de manutenção do genoma que estão alteradas em tecidos pré-cancerosos, cancerosos e tecidos relacionados com a instabilidade genômica e que poderão levar a uma progressão tumoral. Os resultados permitiram caracterizar quantitativamente uma barreira anticâncer na evolução tumoral proposta na literatura.

O parasita protozoário Leishmania apresenta um genoma plástico e dinâmico onde a amplificação gênica e translocações cromossomais são fenômenos comuns. Tal plasticidade sugere a necessidade de mecanismos robustos de reparo do DNA e de manutenção do genoma. A célula eucariótica desenvolveu sistemas de controle checkpoint que reconhecem estruturas alteradas de DNA e bloqueiam a progressão do ciclo celular permitindo que o reparo do DNA aconteça. Nestas células, o complexo heterotrimérico formado pelas proteínas Hus1, Rad9, e Rad1 participa nas etapas iniciais de reconhecimento e sinalização do estresse replicativo. Neste trabalho mostramos que a proteína Hus1 homóloga de Leishmania major é uma proteína nuclear que melhora a capacidade do parasito em lidar com o estresse replicativo. A análise de northern e PCR em tempo real mostraram que, após a transfecção do gene, a linhagem selecionada apresenta níveis aumentados dos transcritos LmHUS1. A utilização de um anticorpo anti-LmHus1 demonstrou o aumento nos níveis da proteína nestas células. Ainda, a superexpressão de LmHus1 confere resistência às drogas genotóxicas hidroxiuréia (HU) e metil metanosulfonato (MMS), e a resistência à HU correlaciona-se com a redução de dano no DNA após a expressão da LmHus1. A ruptura de um dos alelos LmHUS1 diminui os níveis do seu produto, compromete o crescimento do parasito e proporciona discreta diminuição na resistência às drogas genotóxicas. Resultados preliminares associam a expressão da LmHus1 ao fenômeno de amplificação gênica em L. major. Além disso, a possível quinase Chk1, efetora da sinalização iniciada em Hus1, foi clonada e transfectada no parasito, o anticorpo anti-Chk1 também foi produzido. Finalmente, considerando que LmHus1 funcione na detecção do dano e controle de defeitos na replicação de DNA, formulamos a hipótese de que o produto deste gene atue na forquilha de replicação e participe no fenômeno de rearranjo do DNA e na formação de amplicons neste parasito. / The protozoan parasite Leishmania presents a dynamic and plastic genome in which gene amplification and chromosome translocations are common phenomena. Such plasticity hints at the necessity of dependable genome maintenance pathways. Eukaryotic cells have evolved checkpoint control systems that recognize altered DNA structures and halt cell cycle progression allowing DNA repair to take place. In these cells, the PCNA-related heterotrimeric complex formed by the proteins Hus1, Rad9, and Rad1 is known to participate in the early steps of replicative stress sensing and signaling. Here we show that the Hus1 homolog of Leishmania major is a nuclear protein that improves the cell capability to cope with replicative stress. Northern analysis and real-time PCR showed that after transfection of the gene, the selected lineage presents increase in the LmHUS1 transcripts levels and overexpression was confirmed using anti-LmHus1. Thus, overexpression of LmHus1 confers resistance to the genotoxic drugs hydroxyurea (HU) and methyl methanesulfonate (MMS) and resistance to HU correlates to reduced net DNA damage upon LmHus1 expression. Preliminary results associate the LmHus1 expression to the gene amplification phenomena in L. major. And a possible Chk1-like kinase was cloned and transfected into the parasite, the anti-Chk1 was also produced. Besides, LmHus1 mutant is presented, and the LmHUS1 gene disruption decreases its product levels, leads to serious effects on growth, and presenting an slight decrease in the resistance to genotoxic drugs. Finally, considering the hypothesis that LmHus1 participates in the damage sensing and in the control of the DNA replication threats, we hypothesized that the product of this gene acts in replication forks and is involved in DNA rearrangement s and in the amplicons generation in this parasite.

O parasita protozoário Leishmania apresenta um genoma plástico e dinâmico onde a amplificação gênica e translocações cromossomais são fenômenos comuns. Tal plasticidade sugere a necessidade de mecanismos robustos de reparo do DNA e de manutenção do genoma. A célula eucariótica desenvolveu sistemas de controle checkpoint que reconhecem estruturas alteradas de DNA e bloqueiam a progressão do ciclo celular permitindo que o reparo do DNA aconteça. Nestas células, o complexo heterotrimérico formado pelas proteínas Hus1, Rad9, e Rad1 participa nas etapas iniciais de reconhecimento e sinalização do estresse replicativo. Neste trabalho mostramos que a proteína Hus1 homóloga de Leishmania major é uma proteína nuclear que melhora a capacidade do parasito em lidar com o estresse replicativo. A análise de northern e PCR em tempo real mostraram que, após a transfecção do gene, a linhagem selecionada apresenta níveis aumentados dos transcritos LmHUS1. A utilização de um anticorpo anti-LmHus1 demonstrou o aumento nos níveis da proteína nestas células. Ainda, a superexpressão de LmHus1 confere resistência às drogas genotóxicas hidroxiuréia (HU) e metil metanosulfonato (MMS), e a resistência à HU correlaciona-se com a redução de dano no DNA após a expressão da LmHus1. A ruptura de um dos alelos LmHUS1 diminui os níveis do seu produto, compromete o crescimento do parasito e proporciona discreta diminuição na resistência às drogas genotóxicas. Resultados preliminares associam a expressão da LmHus1 ao fenômeno de amplificação gênica em L. major. Além disso, a possível quinase Chk1, efetora da sinalização iniciada em Hus1, foi clonada e transfectada no parasito, o anticorpo anti-Chk1 também foi produzido. Finalmente, considerando que LmHus1 funcione na detecção do dano e controle de defeitos na replicação de DNA, formulamos a hipótese de que o produto deste gene atue na forquilha de replicação e participe no fenômeno de rearranjo do DNA e na formação de amplicons neste parasito. / The protozoan parasite Leishmania presents a dynamic and plastic genome in which gene amplification and chromosome translocations are common phenomena. Such plasticity hints at the necessity of dependable genome maintenance pathways. Eukaryotic cells have evolved checkpoint control systems that recognize altered DNA structures and halt cell cycle progression allowing DNA repair to take place. In these cells, the PCNA-related heterotrimeric complex formed by the proteins Hus1, Rad9, and Rad1 is known to participate in the early steps of replicative stress sensing and signaling. Here we show that the Hus1 homolog of Leishmania major is a nuclear protein that improves the cell capability to cope with replicative stress. Northern analysis and real-time PCR showed that after transfection of the gene, the selected lineage presents increase in the LmHUS1 transcripts levels and overexpression was confirmed using anti-LmHus1. Thus, overexpression of LmHus1 confers resistance to the genotoxic drugs hydroxyurea (HU) and methyl methanesulfonate (MMS) and resistance to HU correlates to reduced net DNA damage upon LmHus1 expression. Preliminary results associate the LmHus1 expression to the gene amplification phenomena in L. major. And a possible Chk1-like kinase was cloned and transfected into the parasite, the anti-Chk1 was also produced. Besides, LmHus1 mutant is presented, and the LmHUS1 gene disruption decreases its product levels, leads to serious effects on growth, and presenting an slight decrease in the resistance to genotoxic drugs. Finally, considering the hypothesis that LmHus1 participates in the damage sensing and in the control of the DNA replication threats, we hypothesized that the product of this gene acts in replication forks and is involved in DNA rearrangement s and in the amplicons generation in this parasite.

Submitted by MARCIA ROVADOSCHI (marciar@unifra.br) on 2018-08-16T19:48:44Z No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertacao_LuizHenriqueRauberRodrigues.pdf: 17209406 bytes, checksum: f1f5406222de4f0c348643f546a9a971 (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-16T19:48:44Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertacao_LuizHenriqueRauberRodrigues.pdf: 17209406 bytes, checksum: f1f5406222de4f0c348643f546a9a971 (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-03-30 / Dysplasia such as cancer can be identified by expression patterns involving mechanisms genome maintenance pathways (GMM). Activation pathways involved in the cell cycle (CC), in the DNA damage response (DDR) and apoptosis (APO), significantly contribute to tumor development. In previous studies, it was found that the precancerous activation process there is an anticancer barrier which is responsible for prevention of tumor progression. The identification of more expressed genes during activation of the anti-cancer barrier, with interactions associated GMM, is a complementary study of the way to evolution of cancer. In this work, the objective was investigate the anti-cancer barrier activation in pre-cancer and cancer, in tissues of adrenal gland, colon, pancreas and thyroid follicles, using networks of interaction between proteins. To describe this barrier was proposed modeling the interaction networks between proteins GMM routes with Cytoscape software. The results obtained with the most important genes in expression and quantity of interactions were compared with the results of previous publications and reconfirmed the relevance of genes CDKN1A, CHEK1, ATR, P53, MRE11A, BRCA1 and XRCC4. Through analysis allowed the identification of other genes, complementary to previous studies, as SKP2, CCNO, FADD, RAD50, NBN, BIRC3, CDK2 and XRCC6. These genes are associated with and complement activation studies of anti-cancer barrier. These considerations emphasize that it is important to observe all systemic biological context, soaking, as in nanoscience where the study makes sense to take into account the interactions. Analyses of interactions enable the development of future work, for example, treatment with drugs nanocapsules, activating or inhibitory acting proteins such as interlocking routes GMM, or nanosensors to monitor the development of cancer. / Displasias como o câncer podem ser identificadas por padrões de expressão envolvendo vias de mecanismos de manutenção do genoma (GMM). A ativação de vias GMM envolvidas em ciclo celular (CC), resposta ao dano no DNA (DDR) e apoptose (APO) contribuem significativamente para o desenvolvimento tumoral. Em estudos anteriores, verificou-se que em processos pré-cancerosos há ativação de uma barreira anti-câncer que é responsável pela prevenção da progressão tumoral. A identificação dos genes mais expressos durante a ativação da barreira anti-câncer, associadas as interações nas vias GMM, tornam-se uma complementariedade ao estudo da evolução do câncer. Neste trabalho, o objetivo foi investigar a ativação da barreira anti-câncer, em pré-câncer e em câncer, presentes em tecidos da glândula adrenal, cólon, pâncreas e folículos da tireoide, usando redes de interação entre proteínas. Para descrever esta barreira foi proposta a modelagem das redes de interação entre as proteínas das vias GMM usando o software Cytoscape. Os resultados obtidos com os genes mais destacados em expressão e quantidade de interações foram comparados com os resultados de publicações anteriores e reconfirmaram a relevância dos genes CDKN1A, CHEK1, ATR, TP53, MRE11A, XRCC4 e BRCA1. A análise por vias permitiu a identificação de outros genes complementares aos trabalhos anteriores como os genes SKP2, CCNO, FADD, RAD50, NBN, BIRC3, CDK2 e XRCC6. Estes genes estão associados e complementam os estudos sobre a ativação da barreira anti-câncer. Estas considerações realçam que é importante observar todo o contexto biológico sistêmico, imersivo, assim como ocorre na nanociência, onde o estudo tem sentido se levar em consideração as interações. As análises sobre as interações permitirão o desenvolvimento de trabalhos futuros, por exemplo, tratamentos com fármacos nanoencapsulados, atuando de forma ativadora ou inibidora de proteínas interconectadas nestas vias GMM, ou nanosensores, para o acompanhamento da evolução do câncer.

Le surenroulement de l’ADN est important pour tous les processus cellulaires qui requièrent la séparation des brins de l’ADN. Il est régulé par l’activité enzymatique des topoisomérases. La gyrase (gyrA et gyrB) utilise l’ATP pour introduire des supertours négatifs dans l’ADN, alors que la topoisomérase I (topA) et la topoisomérase IV (parC et parE) les éliminent. Les cellules déficientes pour la topoisomérase I sont viables si elles ont des mutations compensatoires dans un des gènes codant pour une sous-unité de la gyrase. Ces mutations réduisent le niveau de surenroulement négatif du chromosome et permettent la croissance bactérienne. Une de ces mutations engendre la production d'une gyrase thermosensible. L’activité de surenroulement de la gyrase en absence de la topoisomérase I cause l’accumulation d’ADN hyper-surenroulé négativement à cause de la formation de R-loops. La surproduction de la RNase HI (rnhA), une enzyme qui dégrade l’ARN des R-loops, permet de prévenir l’accumulation d’un excès de surenroulement négatif. En absence de RNase HI, des R-loops sont aussi formés et peuvent être utilisés pour déclencher la réplication de l’ADN indépendamment du système normal oriC/DnaA, un phénomène connu sous le nom de « constitutive stable DNA replication » (cSDR). Pour mieux comprendre le lien entre la formation de R-loops et l’excès de surenroulement négatif, nous avons construit un mutant conditionnel topA rnhA gyrB(Ts) avec l’expression inductible de la RNase HI à partir d’un plasmide. Nous avons trouvé que l’ADN des cellules de ce mutant était excessivement relâché au lieu d'être hypersurenroulé négativement en conditions de pénurie de RNase HI. La relaxation de l’ADN a été montrée comme étant indépendante de l'activité de la topoisomérase IV. Les cellules du triple mutant topA rnhA gyrB(Ts) forment de très longs filaments remplis d’ADN, montrant ainsi un défaut de ségrégation des chromosomes. La surproduction de la topoisomérase III (topB), une enzyme qui peut effectuer la décaténation de l’ADN, a corrigé les problèmes de ségrégation sans toutefois restaurer le niveau de surenroulement de l’ADN. Nous avons constaté que des extraits protéiques du mutant topA rnhA gyrB(Ts) pouvaient inhiber l’activité de surenroulement négatif de la gyrase dans des extraits d’une souche sauvage, suggérant ainsi que la pénurie de RNase HI avait déclenché une réponse cellulaire d’inhibition de cette activité de la gyrase. De plus, des expériences in vivo et in vitro ont montré qu’en absence de RNase HI, l’activité ATP-dépendante de surenroulement négatif de la gyrase était inhibée, alors que l’activité ATP-indépendante de cette enzyme demeurait intacte. Des suppresseurs extragéniques du défaut de croissance du triple mutant topA rnhA gyrB(Ts) qui corrigent également les problèmes de surenroulement et de ségrégation des chromosomes ont pour la plupart été cartographiés dans des gènes impliqués dans la réplication de l’ADN, le métabolisme des R-loops, ou la formation de fimbriae. La deuxième partie de ce projet avait pour but de comprendre les rôles des topoisomérases de type IA (topoisomérase I et topoisomérase III) dans la ségrégation et la stabilité du génome de Escherichia coli. Pour étudier ces rôles, nous avons utilisé des approches de génétique combinées avec la cytométrie en flux, l’analyse de type Western blot et la microscopie. Nous avons constaté que le phénotype Par- et les défauts de ségrégation des chromosomes d’un mutant gyrB(Ts) avaient été corrigés en inactivant topA, mais uniquement en présence du gène topB. En outre, nous avons démontré que la surproduction de la topoisomérase III pouvait corriger le phénotype Par- du mutant gyrB(Ts) sans toutefois corriger les défauts de croissance de ce dernier. La surproduction de topoisomérase IV, enzyme responsable de la décaténation des chromosomes chez E. coli, ne pouvait pas remplacer la topoisomérase III. Nos résultats suggèrent que les topoisomérases de type IA jouent un rôle important dans la ségrégation des chromosomes lorsque la gyrase est inefficace. Pour étudier le rôle des topoisomérases de type IA dans la stabilité du génome, la troisième partie du projet, nous avons utilisé des approches génétiques combinées avec des tests de « spot » et la microscopie. Nous avons constaté que les cellules déficientes en topoisomérase I avaient des défauts de ségrégation de chromosomes et de croissance liés à un excès de surenroulement négatif, et que ces défauts pouvaient être corrigés en inactivant recQ, recA ou par la surproduction de la topoisomérase III. Le suppresseur extragénique oriC15::aph isolé dans la première partie du projet pouvait également corriger ces problèmes. Les cellules déficientes en topoisomérases de type IA formaient des très longs filaments remplis d’ADN d’apparence diffuse et réparti inégalement dans la cellule. Ces phénotypes pouvaient être partiellement corrigés par la surproduction de la RNase HI ou en inactivant recA, ou encore par des suppresseurs isolés dans la première partie du projet et impliques dans le cSDR (dnaT18::aph et rne59::aph). Donc, dans E. coli, les topoisomérases de type IA jouent un rôle dans la stabilité du génome en inhibant la réplication inappropriée à partir de oriC et de R-loops, et en empêchant les défauts de ségrégation liés à la recombinaison RecA-dépendante, par leur action avec RecQ. Les travaux rapportés ici révèlent que la réplication inappropriée et dérégulée est une source majeure de l’instabilité génomique. Empêcher la réplication inappropriée permet la ségrégation des chromosomes et le maintien d’un génome stable. La RNase HI et les topoisomérases de type IA jouent un rôle majeur dans la prévention de la réplication inappropriée. La RNase HI réalise cette tâche en modulant l’activité de surenroulement ATP-dependante de la gyrase, et en empêchant la réplication à partir des R-loops. Les topoisomérases de type IA assurent le maintien de la stabilité du génome en empêchant la réplication inappropriée à partir de oriC et des R-loops et en agissant avec RecQ pour résoudre des intermédiaires de recombinaison RecA-dépendants afin de permettre la ségrégation des chromosomes. / DNA supercoiling is important for all cellular processes that require strand separation and is regulated by the opposing enzymatic effects of DNA topoisomerases. Gyrase uses ATP to introduce negative supercoils while topoisomerase I (topA) and topoisomerase IV relax negative supercoils. Cells lacking topoisomerase I are only viable if they have compensatory mutations in gyrase genes that reduce the negative supercoiling level of the chromosome to allow bacterial growth. One such mutation leads to the production of a thermosensitive gyrase (gyrB(Ts)). Gyrase driven supercoiling during transcription in the absence of topoisomerase I causes the accumulation of hypernegatively supercoiled plasmid DNAs due to the formation of R-loops. Overproducing RNase HI (rnhA), an enzyme that degrades the RNA moiety of R-loops, prevents the accumulation of hypernegative supercoils. In the absence of RNase HI alone, R-loops are equally formed and can be used to prime DNA replication independently of oriC/DnaA, a phenomenon known as constitutive stable DNA replication (cSDR). To better understand the link between R-loop formation and hypernegative supercoiling, we constructed a conditional topA rnhA gyrB(Ts) mutant with RNase HI being conditionally expressed from a plasmid borne gene. We found that the DNA of topA rnhA gyrB(Ts) cells was extensively relaxed instead of being hypernegatively supercoiled following the depletion of RNase HI. Relaxation was found to be unrelated to the activity of topoisomerase IV. Cells of topA rnhA gyrB(Ts) formed long filaments full of DNA, consistent with segregation defect. Overproducing topoisomerase III (topB), an enzyme that can perform decatenation, corrected the segregation problems without restoring supercoiling. We found that extracts of topA rnhA gyrB(Ts) cells inhibited gyrase supercoiling activity of wild type cells extracts in vitro, suggesting that the depletion of RNase HI triggered a cell response that inhibited the supercoiling activity of gyrase. Gyrase supercoiling assays in vivo as well as in crude cell extracts revealed that the ATP dependent supercoiling reaction of gyrase was inhibited while the ATP independent relaxation reaction was unaffected. Genetic suppressors of a triple topA rnhA gyrB(Ts) strain that restored supercoiling and corrected the chromosome segregation defects mostly mapped to genes that affected DNA replication, R-loop metabolism and fimbriae formation. The second part of this project aimed at understanding the roles of type IA DNA topoisomerases (topoisomerase I and topoisomerase III) in chromosome segregation and genome maintenance in E. coli. To investigate the role of type IA DNA topoisomerases in chromosome segregation we employed genetic approaches combined with flow cytometry, Western blot analysis and microscopy (for the examination of cell morphology). We found that the Par- phenotypes (formation of large unsegregated nucleoid in midcell) and chromosome segregation defects of a gyrB(Ts) mutant at the nonpermissive temperature were corrected by deleting topA only in the presence of topB. Moreover, overproducing topoisomerase III was shown to correct the Par- phenotype without correcting the growth defect, but overproducing topoisomerase IV, the major cellular decatenase, failed to correct the defects. Our results suggest that type IA topoisomerases play a role in chromosome segregation when gyrase is inefficient. To investigate the role of type IA DNA topoisomerases in genome maintenance, in the third part of the project, we employed genetic approaches combined with suppressor screens, spot assays and microscopy. We found that cells lacking topoisomerase I suffered from supercoiling-dependent growth defects and chromosome segregation defects that could be corrected by deleting recQ, recA or overproducing topoisomerase III and by an oriC15::aph suppressor mutation isolated in the first part of the project. Cells lacking both type 1A topoisomerases formed very long filaments packed with diffuse and unsegregated DNA. Such phenotypes could be partially corrected by overproducing RNase HI or deleting recA, or by suppressor mutations isolated in the first part of the project, that affected cSDR (dnaT18::aph and rne59::aph). Thus, in E. coli, type IA DNA topoisomerases play a role in genome maintenance by inhibiting inappropriate replication from oriC and R-loops and by preventing RecA-dependent chromosome segregation defect through their action with RecQ. The work reported here reveals that inappropriate and unregulated replication is a major source of genome instability. Preventing such replication will ensures proper chromosome segregation leading to a stable genome. RNase HI and type IA DNA topoisomerases play a leading role in preventing unregulated replication. RNase HI achieves this role by modulating ATP dependent gyrase activity and by preventing replication from R-loops (cSDR). Type IA DNA topoisomerases ensure the maintenance of a stable genome by preventing inappropriate replication from oriC and R-loops and by acting with RecQ to prevent RecA dependent-chromosome segregation defects.

Le surenroulement de l’ADN est important pour tous les processus cellulaires qui requièrent la séparation des brins de l’ADN. Il est régulé par l’activité enzymatique des topoisomérases. La gyrase (gyrA et gyrB) utilise l’ATP pour introduire des supertours négatifs dans l’ADN, alors que la topoisomérase I (topA) et la topoisomérase IV (parC et parE) les éliminent. Les cellules déficientes pour la topoisomérase I sont viables si elles ont des mutations compensatoires dans un des gènes codant pour une sous-unité de la gyrase. Ces mutations réduisent le niveau de surenroulement négatif du chromosome et permettent la croissance bactérienne. Une de ces mutations engendre la production d'une gyrase thermosensible. L’activité de surenroulement de la gyrase en absence de la topoisomérase I cause l’accumulation d’ADN hyper-surenroulé négativement à cause de la formation de R-loops. La surproduction de la RNase HI (rnhA), une enzyme qui dégrade l’ARN des R-loops, permet de prévenir l’accumulation d’un excès de surenroulement négatif. En absence de RNase HI, des R-loops sont aussi formés et peuvent être utilisés pour déclencher la réplication de l’ADN indépendamment du système normal oriC/DnaA, un phénomène connu sous le nom de « constitutive stable DNA replication » (cSDR). Pour mieux comprendre le lien entre la formation de R-loops et l’excès de surenroulement négatif, nous avons construit un mutant conditionnel topA rnhA gyrB(Ts) avec l’expression inductible de la RNase HI à partir d’un plasmide. Nous avons trouvé que l’ADN des cellules de ce mutant était excessivement relâché au lieu d'être hypersurenroulé négativement en conditions de pénurie de RNase HI. La relaxation de l’ADN a été montrée comme étant indépendante de l'activité de la topoisomérase IV. Les cellules du triple mutant topA rnhA gyrB(Ts) forment de très longs filaments remplis d’ADN, montrant ainsi un défaut de ségrégation des chromosomes. La surproduction de la topoisomérase III (topB), une enzyme qui peut effectuer la décaténation de l’ADN, a corrigé les problèmes de ségrégation sans toutefois restaurer le niveau de surenroulement de l’ADN. Nous avons constaté que des extraits protéiques du mutant topA rnhA gyrB(Ts) pouvaient inhiber l’activité de surenroulement négatif de la gyrase dans des extraits d’une souche sauvage, suggérant ainsi que la pénurie de RNase HI avait déclenché une réponse cellulaire d’inhibition de cette activité de la gyrase. De plus, des expériences in vivo et in vitro ont montré qu’en absence de RNase HI, l’activité ATP-dépendante de surenroulement négatif de la gyrase était inhibée, alors que l’activité ATP-indépendante de cette enzyme demeurait intacte. Des suppresseurs extragéniques du défaut de croissance du triple mutant topA rnhA gyrB(Ts) qui corrigent également les problèmes de surenroulement et de ségrégation des chromosomes ont pour la plupart été cartographiés dans des gènes impliqués dans la réplication de l’ADN, le métabolisme des R-loops, ou la formation de fimbriae. La deuxième partie de ce projet avait pour but de comprendre les rôles des topoisomérases de type IA (topoisomérase I et topoisomérase III) dans la ségrégation et la stabilité du génome de Escherichia coli. Pour étudier ces rôles, nous avons utilisé des approches de génétique combinées avec la cytométrie en flux, l’analyse de type Western blot et la microscopie. Nous avons constaté que le phénotype Par- et les défauts de ségrégation des chromosomes d’un mutant gyrB(Ts) avaient été corrigés en inactivant topA, mais uniquement en présence du gène topB. En outre, nous avons démontré que la surproduction de la topoisomérase III pouvait corriger le phénotype Par- du mutant gyrB(Ts) sans toutefois corriger les défauts de croissance de ce dernier. La surproduction de topoisomérase IV, enzyme responsable de la décaténation des chromosomes chez E. coli, ne pouvait pas remplacer la topoisomérase III. Nos résultats suggèrent que les topoisomérases de type IA jouent un rôle important dans la ségrégation des chromosomes lorsque la gyrase est inefficace. Pour étudier le rôle des topoisomérases de type IA dans la stabilité du génome, la troisième partie du projet, nous avons utilisé des approches génétiques combinées avec des tests de « spot » et la microscopie. Nous avons constaté que les cellules déficientes en topoisomérase I avaient des défauts de ségrégation de chromosomes et de croissance liés à un excès de surenroulement négatif, et que ces défauts pouvaient être corrigés en inactivant recQ, recA ou par la surproduction de la topoisomérase III. Le suppresseur extragénique oriC15::aph isolé dans la première partie du projet pouvait également corriger ces problèmes. Les cellules déficientes en topoisomérases de type IA formaient des très longs filaments remplis d’ADN d’apparence diffuse et réparti inégalement dans la cellule. Ces phénotypes pouvaient être partiellement corrigés par la surproduction de la RNase HI ou en inactivant recA, ou encore par des suppresseurs isolés dans la première partie du projet et impliques dans le cSDR (dnaT18::aph et rne59::aph). Donc, dans E. coli, les topoisomérases de type IA jouent un rôle dans la stabilité du génome en inhibant la réplication inappropriée à partir de oriC et de R-loops, et en empêchant les défauts de ségrégation liés à la recombinaison RecA-dépendante, par leur action avec RecQ. Les travaux rapportés ici révèlent que la réplication inappropriée et dérégulée est une source majeure de l’instabilité génomique. Empêcher la réplication inappropriée permet la ségrégation des chromosomes et le maintien d’un génome stable. La RNase HI et les topoisomérases de type IA jouent un rôle majeur dans la prévention de la réplication inappropriée. La RNase HI réalise cette tâche en modulant l’activité de surenroulement ATP-dependante de la gyrase, et en empêchant la réplication à partir des R-loops. Les topoisomérases de type IA assurent le maintien de la stabilité du génome en empêchant la réplication inappropriée à partir de oriC et des R-loops et en agissant avec RecQ pour résoudre des intermédiaires de recombinaison RecA-dépendants afin de permettre la ségrégation des chromosomes. / DNA supercoiling is important for all cellular processes that require strand separation and is regulated by the opposing enzymatic effects of DNA topoisomerases. Gyrase uses ATP to introduce negative supercoils while topoisomerase I (topA) and topoisomerase IV relax negative supercoils. Cells lacking topoisomerase I are only viable if they have compensatory mutations in gyrase genes that reduce the negative supercoiling level of the chromosome to allow bacterial growth. One such mutation leads to the production of a thermosensitive gyrase (gyrB(Ts)). Gyrase driven supercoiling during transcription in the absence of topoisomerase I causes the accumulation of hypernegatively supercoiled plasmid DNAs due to the formation of R-loops. Overproducing RNase HI (rnhA), an enzyme that degrades the RNA moiety of R-loops, prevents the accumulation of hypernegative supercoils. In the absence of RNase HI alone, R-loops are equally formed and can be used to prime DNA replication independently of oriC/DnaA, a phenomenon known as constitutive stable DNA replication (cSDR). To better understand the link between R-loop formation and hypernegative supercoiling, we constructed a conditional topA rnhA gyrB(Ts) mutant with RNase HI being conditionally expressed from a plasmid borne gene. We found that the DNA of topA rnhA gyrB(Ts) cells was extensively relaxed instead of being hypernegatively supercoiled following the depletion of RNase HI. Relaxation was found to be unrelated to the activity of topoisomerase IV. Cells of topA rnhA gyrB(Ts) formed long filaments full of DNA, consistent with segregation defect. Overproducing topoisomerase III (topB), an enzyme that can perform decatenation, corrected the segregation problems without restoring supercoiling. We found that extracts of topA rnhA gyrB(Ts) cells inhibited gyrase supercoiling activity of wild type cells extracts in vitro, suggesting that the depletion of RNase HI triggered a cell response that inhibited the supercoiling activity of gyrase. Gyrase supercoiling assays in vivo as well as in crude cell extracts revealed that the ATP dependent supercoiling reaction of gyrase was inhibited while the ATP independent relaxation reaction was unaffected. Genetic suppressors of a triple topA rnhA gyrB(Ts) strain that restored supercoiling and corrected the chromosome segregation defects mostly mapped to genes that affected DNA replication, R-loop metabolism and fimbriae formation. The second part of this project aimed at understanding the roles of type IA DNA topoisomerases (topoisomerase I and topoisomerase III) in chromosome segregation and genome maintenance in E. coli. To investigate the role of type IA DNA topoisomerases in chromosome segregation we employed genetic approaches combined with flow cytometry, Western blot analysis and microscopy (for the examination of cell morphology). We found that the Par- phenotypes (formation of large unsegregated nucleoid in midcell) and chromosome segregation defects of a gyrB(Ts) mutant at the nonpermissive temperature were corrected by deleting topA only in the presence of topB. Moreover, overproducing topoisomerase III was shown to correct the Par- phenotype without correcting the growth defect, but overproducing topoisomerase IV, the major cellular decatenase, failed to correct the defects. Our results suggest that type IA topoisomerases play a role in chromosome segregation when gyrase is inefficient. To investigate the role of type IA DNA topoisomerases in genome maintenance, in the third part of the project, we employed genetic approaches combined with suppressor screens, spot assays and microscopy. We found that cells lacking topoisomerase I suffered from supercoiling-dependent growth defects and chromosome segregation defects that could be corrected by deleting recQ, recA or overproducing topoisomerase III and by an oriC15::aph suppressor mutation isolated in the first part of the project. Cells lacking both type 1A topoisomerases formed very long filaments packed with diffuse and unsegregated DNA. Such phenotypes could be partially corrected by overproducing RNase HI or deleting recA, or by suppressor mutations isolated in the first part of the project, that affected cSDR (dnaT18::aph and rne59::aph). Thus, in E. coli, type IA DNA topoisomerases play a role in genome maintenance by inhibiting inappropriate replication from oriC and R-loops and by preventing RecA-dependent chromosome segregation defect through their action with RecQ. The work reported here reveals that inappropriate and unregulated replication is a major source of genome instability. Preventing such replication will ensures proper chromosome segregation leading to a stable genome. RNase HI and type IA DNA topoisomerases play a leading role in preventing unregulated replication. RNase HI achieves this role by modulating ATP dependent gyrase activity and by preventing replication from R-loops (cSDR). Type IA DNA topoisomerases ensure the maintenance of a stable genome by preventing inappropriate replication from oriC and R-loops and by acting with RecQ to prevent RecA dependent-chromosome segregation defects.