<p>Over the last thirty years successful national economic development is considered participation in global industries, particularly in global value chains. Frequently, however, inclusion in these chains brings forth varied socioeconomic benefits for chain actors, acutely different ethnic and racial groups. Costa Rican participation in the tourism global value chain while heralded as a success story shows varied impacts for ethnoracial groups who are incorporated, excluded, and stratified in various forms. By comparing two communities in Costa Rica, Tamarindo and Cahuita, three main practices are apparent in determining the position of foreigners from the global North, Costa Ricans from the Central Valley, Afro-Costa Ricans, and Guanacastecans in the industry as workers or entrepreneur suppliers: (1) the role of <italic>governance structures</italic>, i.e., power dynamics between firms along the value chain and the importance of standards, formal and subjective; (2) <italic>institutions</italic>, including global private travel fairs, national tourism boards, and specific development policies; and (3) the dominance of environmental imagery and rural democracy narratives to <italic>market</italic> Costa Rica. Concretely, the development of global tourism in Costa Rica and its impact upon different groups is nuanced and it is a testament to both opportunities for local economic and social empowerment and stratification and marginalization.</p> / Dissertation

Increased international trade has sparked a debate on the need to coordinate dispersedactivities in Global Value Chains, linking production to end consumers. Implementationof standards has in the literature on Global Value Chains been suggested as a wayto coordinate a value chain. We have investigated the value chain of shrimp andprawns production in Bangladesh, in order to analyze if standards placed by the EUhave proven a successful way to coordinate the value chain. The implementation ofstandards has been studied to capture the coordination in the value chain. A singlecase study was conducted with interviews from a sample of actors in direct or closeconnection to the production of shrimp and prawns in Bangladesh. The focus of thestudy has been on the perspectives of the individuals and if and how standards areimplemented successfully in a social context. The attempt has been to bridgeunderstandings of implementation of standards together with knowledge of the complexnature of Global Value Chains. The results show that there are multiple challengesto successful implementation of standards. Hurdles can especially be linked tothe ability to follow standards where lack of human- and financial resources havebeen found. In addition, the will to follow standards can have an impact when traditionalmethods stand in the way and immediate financial incentives are not in place.

As a result of globalisation, firms across both developed and developing countries are experiencing increased competition. Globalisation has both positive and negative consequences for firms, and the net effect may depend on the manner in which the country where a firm is located participates in the global market. Both the global commodity chain (GCC) and global value chain (GVC) approaches assess countries' integration (either successfully or unsuccessfully) into the global market. The international floriculture industry is one that is constantly changing and has a highly competitive environment. These challenges require that its participants be successfully integrated into the market and constantly improve their competitive positions. The South African floriculture industry has become more integrated into the global market since it opened up its economy in 1994. Both revenue and employment in this industry have increased since then. However, South Africa remains fairly uncompetitive compared with its African counterparts. The overall aim of this study was to assess the impact of the global floriculture industry on both the competitiveness of the South African floriculture industry and its integration into the global market. The GCC and GVC approaches were used in this assessment. The literature study provided background to these approaches in the context of globalisation. A detailed description was further given to the attributes and challenges of the global floriculture arena, together with a delineation of the South African floriculture industry. The empirical study was conducted through a mail-based questionnaire, which was mailed to the members of the South African Flower Export Council. The response rate of the survey was 59 per cent and can be considered high for a mail-based questionnaire. The responses were analysed according to the elements of the GVC and GCC approaches. This enabled an analysis of the global chains that the exporters form part of. Hence, it identified the role players and variables within these chains that influence the ultimate income of the floriculture industry. From the empirical findings it was possible to determine the South African export floriculture industry's strengths and weaknesses. The conclusion drawn was that the South African floriculture industry functions successful internationally, according to the elements of the GCC and GVC approaches. However, the industry does not participate to its full potential in the global market and lacks competitiveness. These findings supported the assumptions in the literature study. Once the South African floriculture exporters become more export-oriented (i.e. shift their focus from the domestic to the international market), the industry's competitiveness will enhance. Becoming further integrated into the global market by increasing both the volumes and values of their exports can do this. Ultimately the exporters will be able to move into better and more competitive global chains (i.e. export more directly). / Thesis (M.Com. (International Commerce))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2005.

As a result of globalisation, firms across both developed and developing countries are experiencing increased competition. Globalisation has both positive and negative consequences for firms, and the net effect may depend on the manner in which the country where a firm is located participates in the global market. Both the global commodity chain (GCC) and global value chain (GVC) approaches assess countries' integration (either successfully or unsuccessfully) into the global market. The international floriculture industry is one that is constantly changing and has a highly competitive environment. These challenges require that its participants be successfully integrated into the market and constantly improve their competitive positions. The South African floriculture industry has become more integrated into the global market since it opened up its economy in 1994. Both revenue and employment in this industry have increased since then. However, South Africa remains fairly uncompetitive compared with its African counterparts. The overall aim of this study was to assess the impact of the global floriculture industry on both the competitiveness of the South African floriculture industry and its integration into the global market. The GCC and GVC approaches were used in this assessment. The literature study provided background to these approaches in the context of globalisation. A detailed description was further given to the attributes and challenges of the global floriculture arena, together with a delineation of the South African floriculture industry. The empirical study was conducted through a mail-based questionnaire, which was mailed to the members of the South African Flower Export Council. The response rate of the survey was 59 per cent and can be considered high for a mail-based questionnaire. The responses were analysed according to the elements of the GVC and GCC approaches. This enabled an analysis of the global chains that the exporters form part of. Hence, it identified the role players and variables within these chains that influence the ultimate income of the floriculture industry. From the empirical findings it was possible to determine the South African export floriculture industry's strengths and weaknesses. The conclusion drawn was that the South African floriculture industry functions successful internationally, according to the elements of the GCC and GVC approaches. However, the industry does not participate to its full potential in the global market and lacks competitiveness. These findings supported the assumptions in the literature study. Once the South African floriculture exporters become more export-oriented (i.e. shift their focus from the domestic to the international market), the industry's competitiveness will enhance. Becoming further integrated into the global market by increasing both the volumes and values of their exports can do this. Ultimately the exporters will be able to move into better and more competitive global chains (i.e. export more directly). / Thesis (M.Com. (International Commerce))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2005.

A globalização da economia tem induzido as empresas a se integrarem em diferentes tipos de aglomerações industriais. Estas aglomerações geralmente podem ser definidas a partir de dois aspectos principais: a sequência de relacionamentos entre empresas para distribuição dos produtos nos mercados regionais e globais, as chamadas cadeias produtivas ou globais de valor, e a concentração geográfica das empresas em um determinado território, denominada de cluster ou aglomeração industrial. Neste sentido, a globalização e a regionalização andam juntas, pois quanto mais global é o consumo de um determinado bem, maior a tendência de concentração espacial de empresas complementares para a produção deste bem. Porém a simples concentração geográfica da produção, por si, só não é suficiente para aumentar a competitividade das empresas da aglomeração. É necessário que sejam articuladas ações coletivas de direção e coordenação, de forma a aumentar a competitividade do conjunto de empresas envolvidas no esforço denominado de governança. Buscando contribuir com esta questão, o trabalho propõe o desenvolvimento de um modelo de análise de governança e uma metodologia de implantação para inserção competitiva de aglomerações industriais em cadeias globais de valor. Para atingir este objetivo, a pesquisa inicia com a caracterização das aglomerações industriais sejam elas baseadas em produtos ou baseadas no território. Na sequência são identificados vários aspectos relacionados à governança de aglomerações industriais, de forma a identificar os elementos-base para a proposição de um modelo de análise da governança. Com os elementos identificados, é proposto um modelo inicial de análise de governança. Este modelo é aplicado inicialmente em algumas aglomerações industriais maduras, já inseridas competitivamente em cadeias globais de valor. A partir desta aplicação é proposto um modelo final e uma metodologia passo a passo para a sua implementação. Finalmente, buscando testar a aplicabilidade do modelo e da metodologia desenvolvidos, o mesmo é aplicado parcialmente em uma aglomeração industrial. Por fim, a partir de um estudo de caso, são apresentadas as conclusões e recomendações relativas ao modelo, à metodologia e ao estudo de caso decorrentes do trabalho desenvolvido. / The globalization of the economy has leaded the companies to integrate themselves in different kind of agglomerations. These agglomerations can be defined by two principal aspects: The sequence of relationships between companies organized to distribute the goods on regional or global markets, called productive chain or global value chains, and the geographic concentration of firms in a specific territory, called industrial agglomeration or cluster. On this way, globalization and regionalization can run together because how global is the consumption of a specific good, bigger is the tendency to concentrate complementary companies to produce it. But the geographic production concentration itself is not enough to increase the competitiveness of the agglomerated companies. It is necessary the articulation of collective actions to get direction and coordination to the group of companies in order to increase the competitiveness that are called governance. To contribute with this question, this paper proposes the development of a model of governance analysis and a methodology to promote the competitive insertion of clusters in global value chains. To achieve this goal the research begins with the characterization of industrial agglomerations in terms of products produced or based in a specific territory. In the sequence some aspects related to the governance of industrial agglomerations are acknowledged in order to identify the baseelements that will be used to propose a governance model. With the elements identified is proposed an initial governance analysis model. This model was preliminary applied in three mature industrial clusters that are actually inserted in global value chains. After this preliminary application, it is proposed a final governance model and a step-by-step methodology for their implementation. Finally to evaluate the applicability of the developing model and his methodology, the model is partially applied in an industrial agglomeration. In the end, based on this case study, are presented conclusions and recommendations related to the model, the methodology and the case study developed in this work.

Rise of offshoring services to developing countries has led to the participation of small offshoring services providers in the global value chains. Many inter-disciplinary researches have understood whether participation in global value chains (GVCs) leads to beneficial outcomes for small suppliers. However, the institutional dynamics that may hamper or support small supplier upgrading has not received much attention. This is especially true for small offshoring services providers (OSPs) who are operating in an adverse institutional environment represented by low quality institutions, political instability, and political conflicts. Taking an offshoring service provider’s (OSP) perspective, this paper aims to understand the how Pakistani OSPs bypass/address the challenges of upgrading and move to significant positions in global value chains. Anchoring this work in the relational economic geography, global value chain, and international business, an analytical framework is developed based upon three conceptual building blocks: Upgrading challenges, strategic responses, and upgrading. The thesis adopts qualitative interview technique to collect data from seventeen Pakistani OSPs. The textual data which is interpreted using template analysis technique shows that some Pakistani OSPs demonstrate ‘resilient’ strategies to upgrade in GVCs. The differences in the resilience of OSPs are dependent upon a) level of responsiveness of OSPs to cope with all or some of the upgrading challenges, b) to adapt the changing demands of GVCs. It is understood that OSPs showing high level of responsiveness and adaptation are able to truly upgrade in global value chain by gaining legitimacy in GVCs for their ability to successfully meet GVC conventions and legitimise operation in an adverse economy.

A globalização da economia tem induzido as empresas a se integrarem em diferentes tipos de aglomerações industriais. Estas aglomerações geralmente podem ser definidas a partir de dois aspectos principais: a sequência de relacionamentos entre empresas para distribuição dos produtos nos mercados regionais e globais, as chamadas cadeias produtivas ou globais de valor, e a concentração geográfica das empresas em um determinado território, denominada de cluster ou aglomeração industrial. Neste sentido, a globalização e a regionalização andam juntas, pois quanto mais global é o consumo de um determinado bem, maior a tendência de concentração espacial de empresas complementares para a produção deste bem. Porém a simples concentração geográfica da produção, por si, só não é suficiente para aumentar a competitividade das empresas da aglomeração. É necessário que sejam articuladas ações coletivas de direção e coordenação, de forma a aumentar a competitividade do conjunto de empresas envolvidas no esforço denominado de governança. Buscando contribuir com esta questão, o trabalho propõe o desenvolvimento de um modelo de análise de governança e uma metodologia de implantação para inserção competitiva de aglomerações industriais em cadeias globais de valor. Para atingir este objetivo, a pesquisa inicia com a caracterização das aglomerações industriais sejam elas baseadas em produtos ou baseadas no território. Na sequência são identificados vários aspectos relacionados à governança de aglomerações industriais, de forma a identificar os elementos-base para a proposição de um modelo de análise da governança. Com os elementos identificados, é proposto um modelo inicial de análise de governança. Este modelo é aplicado inicialmente em algumas aglomerações industriais maduras, já inseridas competitivamente em cadeias globais de valor. A partir desta aplicação é proposto um modelo final e uma metodologia passo a passo para a sua implementação. Finalmente, buscando testar a aplicabilidade do modelo e da metodologia desenvolvidos, o mesmo é aplicado parcialmente em uma aglomeração industrial. Por fim, a partir de um estudo de caso, são apresentadas as conclusões e recomendações relativas ao modelo, à metodologia e ao estudo de caso decorrentes do trabalho desenvolvido. / The globalization of the economy has leaded the companies to integrate themselves in different kind of agglomerations. These agglomerations can be defined by two principal aspects: The sequence of relationships between companies organized to distribute the goods on regional or global markets, called productive chain or global value chains, and the geographic concentration of firms in a specific territory, called industrial agglomeration or cluster. On this way, globalization and regionalization can run together because how global is the consumption of a specific good, bigger is the tendency to concentrate complementary companies to produce it. But the geographic production concentration itself is not enough to increase the competitiveness of the agglomerated companies. It is necessary the articulation of collective actions to get direction and coordination to the group of companies in order to increase the competitiveness that are called governance. To contribute with this question, this paper proposes the development of a model of governance analysis and a methodology to promote the competitive insertion of clusters in global value chains. To achieve this goal the research begins with the characterization of industrial agglomerations in terms of products produced or based in a specific territory. In the sequence some aspects related to the governance of industrial agglomerations are acknowledged in order to identify the baseelements that will be used to propose a governance model. With the elements identified is proposed an initial governance analysis model. This model was preliminary applied in three mature industrial clusters that are actually inserted in global value chains. After this preliminary application, it is proposed a final governance model and a step-by-step methodology for their implementation. Finally to evaluate the applicability of the developing model and his methodology, the model is partially applied in an industrial agglomeration. In the end, based on this case study, are presented conclusions and recommendations related to the model, the methodology and the case study developed in this work.

O presente trabalho tem como objetivo investigar os efeitos trazidos pelo padrão 4C para a produção de café no Brasil. Mais especificamente analisar quais tipos de melhorias (upgrading) foram trazidas aos produtores que adotaram o padrão 4C. As melhorias podem ser classificadas em econômicas, sociais e ambientais. Para isso foi utilizada uma abordagem metodológica qualitativa de estudo de caso. A primeira etapa da pesquisa correspondeu a uma revisão sistemática de literatura, em que foi possível formular proposições. Em seguida foram realizadas entrevistas com agentes da cadeia de valor do café - meso-instituições, cooperativas e produtores. Através de entrevistas, análise de documentos e reportagens sobre o assunto publicados em jornais e revistas especializadas, foram levantados dados que foram analisados com o auxílio do software de análise qualitativa Atlas TI. Os resultados indicam que grande parte das melhorias podem ser caracterizadas como upgrading ambiental. Além disso, os resultados mostram que a adoção do padrão 4C fez com que os produtores organizassem melhores seus processos de produção e tivessem maior controle das atividades relacionados ao cultivo de café com padrão 4C. / The present work had as objective to investigate the effects brought by the 4C standard for Brazilian coffee agriculture. More specifically, analyze what types of improvements (upgradings) brought to producers that adopt the 4C standard. Improvements can be classified as economic, social and environmental. For this, a qualitative methodological approach of case studies was used. The first stage of the research corresponded to a systematic literature review, in which it was possible at the end to formulate the propositions. Interviews were then conducted with various agents within the coffee value chain - meso-institutions, cooperatives and producers. Through interviews, document analysis and articles published in specialized journals and journals, data were collected that were analyzed using the qualitative analysis software Atlas TI. The results indicate that most of the improvements can be characterized as environmental upgrading. In addition, the results show that the adoption of the 4C standard made farmers better organize their production processes and have more control of activities related to 4C coffee cultivation.

The present study examined Fairtrade certification from the perspective of sustainable development, with a focus on social, cultural, environmental, economic and political factors taking into account the perception of the actors in charge of the first part of the global value chain of the Central of Apicultural Cooperatives in Brazilian Semiarid - CASA APIS. Casa Apis is a solidary enterprise structured under PROMEL, a program to generate employment and income and combat poverty in the Northeast of Brazil. The Central aforementioned is located in the city of Picos-PI and currently gives assistance to about 960 beekeepers that are placed in 08 cooperatives in 52 municipalities in Piauà and CearÃ. With a view to improving the competitiveness of cooperatives, Casa Apis seeks constantly to obtain the seals of the most important beekeeping industry certifications, including certification of Fair Trade, which was acquired in 2007 and made it the first certified apicultural exporter cooperative in Brazil. Fair-trade certification primarily aims at the sustainable development of small producers organizations by checking the fulfilling of policies and principles which value the small producer, who formerly had an unfair treatment in the traditional trade model, especially in relation to payment. These principles are supported by the Sustainable Development proposal. According to Sachs (2009), equity in social, cultural, environmental, economic, and political aspects, among others, is essential for Sustainable Development. We chose Casa Apis as an object of this study because of its importance for the sustainable development of the Brazilian semiarid region. Fairtrade certification requires sustainable development through production practices and trade which are socially fair, environmentally-oriented and economically ethical. This case study adopted content analysis and triangulation methods to analyze data (BARDIN, 2011; YIN (2011). We found out that Fairtrade certification promotes Sustainable Development from the perspective of the dimensions chosen for the study. Nevertheless, it was observed that the model of development within these dimensions are not equally developed as proposed in the model of Sachs (2009), but is still in process of development / O presente estudo analisou a certificaÃÃo do ComÃrcio Justo sob a Ãtica do Desenvolvimento SustentÃvel, com enfoque nas dimensÃes social, cultural, ambiental, econÃmica e polÃtica a partir da percepÃÃo dos atores envolvidos no inÃcio da cadeia global de valor da Central de Cooperativas ApÃcolas do SemiÃrido Brasileiro (CASA APIS). A Casa Apis à um empreendimento solidÃrio, estruturado no Ãmbito do Programa de GeraÃÃo de Emprego e Renda e Combate à Pobreza no Nordeste (PROMEL). A Central fica situada na cidade de Picos/PI e beneficia atualmente cerca de 960 apicultores distribuidos entre 08 cooperativas singulares em 52 municÃpios nos Estados do Piauà e CearÃ, e com o intuito de melhorar a competitivade de suas cooperativas, vem buscando adquirir os selos das mais importantes certificaÃÃes do setor apÃcola, entre eles a certificaÃÃo do ComÃrcio Justo, pelo qual adquiriu em 2007, tornando-se a primeira cooperativa apÃcola exportadora certificada no Brasil. A certificaÃÃo do ComÃrcio Justo visa, sobretudo, o desenvolvimento sustentÃvel das organizaÃÃes dos pequenos produtores atravÃs do cumprimento de suas polÃticas e princÃpios que oportunizam e valorizam o pequeno produtor, outrora injustiÃado pelo modelo de comÃrcio tradicional, principalmente em relaÃÃo ao pagamento injusto. Esses princÃpios sÃo sustentados pela proposta do Desenvolvimento SustentÃvel. Segundo Sachs (2009), para que haja Desenvolvimento SustentÃvel à necessÃrio a equidade entre as dimensÃes social, cultural, ambiental, econÃmica, polÃtica, dentre outras. Optou-se pela Casa Apis enquanto objeto deste estudo pela sua importÃncia para o desenvolvimento sustentÃvel da regiÃo do semiÃrido brasileiro. Para haver certificaÃÃo do ComÃrcio Justo à necessÃrio o desenvolvimento sustentÃvel, atravÃs das prÃticas de produÃÃo e comercializaÃÃo socialmente justo, ambientalmente correto e economicamente Ãtico. Este estudo de caso adotou como mÃtodo para a anÃlise dos dados a anÃlise de conteÃdo e triangulaÃÃo do dados (YIN, 2010; BARDIN, 2011). Inferiu-se que a certificaÃÃo do ComÃrcio Justo promove o Desenvolvimento SustentÃvel sob a Ãtica das dimensÃes escolhidas para o estudo. Contudo, observou-se que o modelo de desenvolvimento no Ãmbito dessas dimensÃes nÃo estÃo equitativamente desenvolvidas conforme propÃe o modelo de Sachs (2009), mas encontra-se ainda em processo de formaÃÃo e desenvolvimento

A globalização da economia tem induzido as empresas a se integrarem em diferentes tipos de aglomerações industriais. Estas aglomerações geralmente podem ser definidas a partir de dois aspectos principais: a sequência de relacionamentos entre empresas para distribuição dos produtos nos mercados regionais e globais, as chamadas cadeias produtivas ou globais de valor, e a concentração geográfica das empresas em um determinado território, denominada de cluster ou aglomeração industrial. Neste sentido, a globalização e a regionalização andam juntas, pois quanto mais global é o consumo de um determinado bem, maior a tendência de concentração espacial de empresas complementares para a produção deste bem. Porém a simples concentração geográfica da produção, por si, só não é suficiente para aumentar a competitividade das empresas da aglomeração. É necessário que sejam articuladas ações coletivas de direção e coordenação, de forma a aumentar a competitividade do conjunto de empresas envolvidas no esforço denominado de governança. Buscando contribuir com esta questão, o trabalho propõe o desenvolvimento de um modelo de análise de governança e uma metodologia de implantação para inserção competitiva de aglomerações industriais em cadeias globais de valor. Para atingir este objetivo, a pesquisa inicia com a caracterização das aglomerações industriais sejam elas baseadas em produtos ou baseadas no território. Na sequência são identificados vários aspectos relacionados à governança de aglomerações industriais, de forma a identificar os elementos-base para a proposição de um modelo de análise da governança. Com os elementos identificados, é proposto um modelo inicial de análise de governança. Este modelo é aplicado inicialmente em algumas aglomerações industriais maduras, já inseridas competitivamente em cadeias globais de valor. A partir desta aplicação é proposto um modelo final e uma metodologia passo a passo para a sua implementação. Finalmente, buscando testar a aplicabilidade do modelo e da metodologia desenvolvidos, o mesmo é aplicado parcialmente em uma aglomeração industrial. Por fim, a partir de um estudo de caso, são apresentadas as conclusões e recomendações relativas ao modelo, à metodologia e ao estudo de caso decorrentes do trabalho desenvolvido. / The globalization of the economy has leaded the companies to integrate themselves in different kind of agglomerations. These agglomerations can be defined by two principal aspects: The sequence of relationships between companies organized to distribute the goods on regional or global markets, called productive chain or global value chains, and the geographic concentration of firms in a specific territory, called industrial agglomeration or cluster. On this way, globalization and regionalization can run together because how global is the consumption of a specific good, bigger is the tendency to concentrate complementary companies to produce it. But the geographic production concentration itself is not enough to increase the competitiveness of the agglomerated companies. It is necessary the articulation of collective actions to get direction and coordination to the group of companies in order to increase the competitiveness that are called governance. To contribute with this question, this paper proposes the development of a model of governance analysis and a methodology to promote the competitive insertion of clusters in global value chains. To achieve this goal the research begins with the characterization of industrial agglomerations in terms of products produced or based in a specific territory. In the sequence some aspects related to the governance of industrial agglomerations are acknowledged in order to identify the baseelements that will be used to propose a governance model. With the elements identified is proposed an initial governance analysis model. This model was preliminary applied in three mature industrial clusters that are actually inserted in global value chains. After this preliminary application, it is proposed a final governance model and a step-by-step methodology for their implementation. Finally to evaluate the applicability of the developing model and his methodology, the model is partially applied in an industrial agglomeration. In the end, based on this case study, are presented conclusions and recommendations related to the model, the methodology and the case study developed in this work.