Thesis (Ph.D.)--Georgetown University, 2008. / Includes bibliographical references.

Apesar da elevada prevalência dos transtornos depressivos em idosos, os mecanismos fisiopatológicos subjacentes a estes quadros são pouco conhecidos. Atualmente, o principal foco dos estudos sobre a fisiopatologia da depressão geriátrica são as alterações cerebrovasculares associadas a estes quadros. Outros mecanismos fisiopatológicos têm sido estudados, como as alterações em cascatas neurotróficas e inflamatórias. A enzima glicogênio sintase quinase 3 beta (GSK-3B) tem sido implicada na patogênese de diversos transtornos mentais, em especial os transtornos afetivos (i.e. depressão maior e o transtorno afetivo bipolar) e doenças neurodegenerativas (i.e. doença de Alzheimer). Entretanto, não há estudos que avaliam o papel desta enzima nos pacientes idosos com depressão maior. Desta maneira, o objetivo principal deste trabalho é avaliar a atividade da GSK-3B em pacientes idosos com depressão maior. A hipótese deste estudo é que a atividade enzimática está aumentada nos pacientes idosos deprimidos em relação a idosos saudáveis. Para este estudo, recrutamos 40 idosos com depressão maior (de acordo com os critérios diagnósticos do DSM-IV) e que não estavam em uso de antidepressivos. O grupo comparativo foi constituído por 13 idosos saudáveis, sem evidências de transtornos cognitivos ou do humor. A gravidade da sintomatologia depressiva foi avaliada pela escala de depressão de Hamilton de 21 itens (HAM-D); o desempenho cognitivo dos pacientes e controles foi avaliado pelo teste cognitivo de Cambridge (CAMCOG) e pelo mini-exame do estado mental (MEEM). A expressão da GSK-3B foi determinada em plaquetas através de ensaio imunoenzimático (EIA), sendo estabelecido os níveis totais da GSK-3B (T-GSK-3B) e de sua forma fosforilada (P-GSK-3B), inativa. A atividade enzimática foi inferida indiretamente pela razão P-GSK- 3B / T-GSK-3B. Nos pacientes idosos com depressão maior, observou-se uma redução significante dos níveis P-GSK-3B (p=0,03) e da razão da GSK- 3B (p=0,03). Os pacientes com sintomatologia depressiva mais grave (HAMD > 21) e déficits cognitivos mais intensos (CAMCOG < 86) apresentaram maior atividade enzimática (p=0,03 e teste, p=0,01, respectivamente). Os resultados deste trabalho sugerem que a atividade da GSK-3B está significantemente aumentada em pacientes idosos com depressão maior e que está alteração é mais pronunciada nos pacientes com sintomatologia depressiva e déficits cognitivos mais graves. Neste contexto, a atividade da GSK-3B pode ser considerada um marcador de estado em pacientes idosos com episódios depressivos mais graves e ser um importante alvo para o desenvolvimento de estratégias terapêuticas para estes quadros / Despite the high prevalence of depressive disorders in the elderly, its main physiopathological mechanisms are largely unknown. In the recent years, most of the research efforts focused on the association between cerebrovascular changes and geriatric depression. Nonetheless, other mechanisms have been studied, such as changes in neurotrophic and inflammatory cascades. The enzyme glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta (GSK- 3B) has been implicated in many mental disorders, in particular affective disorders (i.e. major depression and bipolar disorder) and neurodegenerative disorders (i.e. Alzheimers disease). However, there is no study so far that addressed the role of this enzyme in elderly patients with major depression. Therefore, the main objective of this study was to evaluate if GSK-3B activity is changed in elderly patients with major. The working hypothesis is that enzyme activity is significantly increased in elderly patients with major depression as compared to elderly controls. We recruited 40 elderly patients with current major depressive episode (according to the DSM-IV criteria) that was not under antidepressant treatment. The comparison group included 13 healthy elderly subjects with no evidence of cognitive impairment or major psychiatric disorder. The severity of depressive symptoms was assessed by the Hamilton Depression Scale 21 items; cognitive performance was assessed by the Cambridge Cognitive test (CAMCOG) and the Mini-mental State Examination (MMSE). The levels of total and phosphorylated GSK-3B (T-GSK-3B and P-GSK-3B, respectively) levels were determined in platelets by immunoenzymatic assay (EIA). Enzyme activity was indirectly inferred by the ratio P-GSK-3B / T-GSK-3B. Elderly patients with major depression had a significant reduction in the P-GSK-3B levels (p = 0.03) and GSK-3B ratio (p= 0.03). The patients with severe depressive episode (HAM-D scores above 21 points) and cognitive impairment (CAMCOG scores below 86 points) presented the more significant reduction of GSK-3B ratio (p = 0.03 and p = 0.01, respectively). These data altogether suggest that GSK-3B activity is significantly increased in elderly patients with major depression, in particular in those with more severe depressive episode and worse cognitive performance. In this context, the increased enzyme activity may be regarded as a state marker of severe depressive episodes and may an important target to the development of therapeutic strategies to this disorder

Duas enzimas têm-se destacado como possíveis marcadores biológicos periféricos na esquizofrenia: a fosfolipase A2 (PLA2) e a glicogênio sintase quinase-3 beta (GSK-3B). Essas moléculas exercem importante influência na arquitetura e plasticidade celulares, na regulação de vias metabólicas comuns (metabolismo de fosfolípides e via Wnt), em fatores de transcrição, na regulação de genes e na sobrevivência celular. Tais aspectos tornam pertinentes as investigações a respeito da possível participação dessas enzimas na fisiopatologia da esquizofrenia. Foi verificada a atividade de subtipos de PLA2 (método radioenzimático: iPLA2, cPLA2 e sPLA2) e os níveis de GSK-3B total (GSK-3Bt) e fosforilada [p(Ser9)-GSK-3B] (ELISA) em plaquetas de pacientes com esquizofrenia inicialmente livres de tratamento medicamentoso com média de 5 anos de doença (D+5a) (n=10), aos quais foi prescrita a olanzapina. Foi avaliado também um grupo de pacientes livres de tratamento medicamentoso com menos de 6 meses de sintomas psicóticos (D-6m) (n=6) aos quais foi posteriormente prescrito o haloperidol. Esses pacientes foram comparados com um grupo controle (n = 20) e avaliados longitudinalmente após o tratamento descrito por 8 semanas. Um grupo de 40 pacientes com esquizofrenia (tempo médio da doença: 17 anos) com pelo menos 6 meses de tratamento com antipsicótico (clozapina, olanzapina ou haloperidol) foi ainda avaliado. Os sintomas clínicos foram avaliados por meio da Escala de Avaliação das Síndromes Positiva e Negativa (PANSS). Quando comparado com o grupo controle, os pacientes D+5a apresentaram aumento da atividade de iPLA2 (p<0,01) e os pacientes D-6m apresentaram aumento da atividade de sPLA2 (p<0,05). Na avaliação longitudinal, somente a olanzapina diminuiu a atividade de iPLA2, cPLA2 e sPLA2 (p<0,01). Quando comparada a atividade dos subtipos de PLA2 entre os pacientes medicados a pelo menos 6 meses e o grupo controle, não foram observadas diferenças significativas. Quando comparado com o grupo controle, os pacientes D+5a apresentaram diminuição dos níveis de GSK-3Bt e p(Ser9)-GSK-3B (p<0,05). Na avaliação longitudinal, foi observado que somente a olanzapina aumentou os níveis de GSK-3Bt e p(Ser9)-GSK-3B (p < 0,01). Quando comparados os níveis de GSK-3Bt e p(Ser9)-GSK-3B entre os pacientes medicados a pelo menos 6 meses e o grupo controle não foram observadas diferenças significativas. Para os pacientes medicados a pelo menos 6 meses foram observadas correlações entre a sub-escala negativa da PANSS e os níveis de p(Ser9)-GSK-3B (r=,53, p<0,001). Sugere-se que a medicação module PLA2 e GSK-3B, independente do antipsicótico utilizado. Esses resultados apontam para uma futura aplicação dessas enzimas na verificação de adesão ao tratamento e estabilização do quadro clínico / The enzymes phospholipases A2 (PLA2) and glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta (GSK-3B) are thought to play a role in schizophrenia by influencing cellular architecture and plasticity, common signaling pathways (phospholipids metabolism and Wnt pathway), gene transcription, regulation factors and apoptosis. These aspects motivated the investigation of both these enzymes in schizophrenia. The activities of PLA2 subtypes (iPLA2, cPLA2 and sPLA2 by radio enzymatic method) and the levels of total GSK-3B and phosphorylated GSK-3B [p(Ser9)-GSK-3B] (by immune enzyme assay) were performed in platelets of drug free patients with schizophrenia for average 5 years of disease (D+5y) (n=10), who was lately prescribed with olanzapine and in drug naïve patients with less than 6 months of psychotic symptoms (D-6m) who was lately prescribed with haloperidol. These patients were compared to a control group (n=20) and were longitudinally evaluated after 8 weeks of monotherapy treatment with the prescribed antipsychotic. These enzymes were also investigated in a group of 40 patients with schizophrenia (mean duration of disease: 17 years) who were at least 6 months treated with antipsychotic (clozapine; olanzapine or haloperidol). Psychopathology was assessed with the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS). Patients D+5y presented higher iPLA2 activity than control group (p < 0.01) and patients D-6m presented higher sPLA2 activity than control group (p < 0.05). On longitudinal evaluation, only olanzapine decreased iPLA2, cPLA2 and sPLA2 activities (p < 0.01). In the long-term medicated patients group compared to the control group, no differences regarding PLA2 subtype activity were found. Patients D+5y presented lower GSK-3Bt and p(Ser9)-GSK-3B levels than control group (p<0.05). On longitudinal evaluation, only olanzapine increased GSK-3Bt and p(Ser9)-GSK-3B levels (p < 0.01). In the long-term medicated patients group compared to the control group, no differences regarding GSK-3B levels were found. For long-term medicated patients, it was observed correlation between p(Ser9)-GSK-3B and the PANSS negative syndrome subscale score (r = .53, p < 0.001). It was suggested that antipsychotic treatment modulated PLA2 and GSK-3B, in spite of the drug used. The results pointed to a future use of these enzymes to verify drug treatment compliance and clinical stabilization

Increasingly, cell-based therapy with autologous progenitor populations, such as endothelial progenitor cells (EPC), are being utilized for treatment of vascular diseases. However, both the number and functional capacity are diminished when cells are derived from patients with established risk factors for coronary artery disease (CAD). Herein, we report that inhibition of glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK) can improve both the number and function of endothelial progenitor cells in patients with CAD or diabetes mellitus (DM) leading to greater therapeutic benefit. Specifically, use of various small molecule inhibitors of GSK (GSKi) results in a 4-fold increased number of EPCs. Moreover, GSKi treatment improves the functional profile of EPCs through reductions in apoptosis, improvements in cell adhesion through up-regulation of very-late antigen-4 (VLA-4), and by increasing paracrine efficacy by increasing vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)secretion. Therapeutic improvement was confirmed in vivo by increased reendothelialization(RE) and reductions of neointima (NI) formation achieved when GSKi-treated cells were administered following vascular injury to CD-1 nude mice. Because cell-based therapy is technically challenging, we also tested a strategy of local delivery of GSKi at the site of arterial injury through GSKi-eluting stents. In vitro, GSKi elution increased EPC attachment to stent struts. In vivo, GSKi-eluting stents deployed in rabbit carotid arteries resulted in systemic mobilization of EPCs, improved local RE, and important reductions in in-stent NI formation. Finally, we tested the ability of GSKi to improve EPC-mediated arterial repair in patients with DM. As in patients with CAD, GSKi treatment improved EPC yield and diminished in vitro apoptosis. Utilizing a proteomics approach, we identified Cathepsin B (catB) as a differentially regulated protein necessary for reductions in apoptosis. Indeed, antagonism of catB prevented GSKi improvements in GSKi treated EPC mediated arterial repair in a xenotransplant wire injury model. Thus, our data demonstrates that GSKi treatment results in improvements in EPC number and function in vitro and in vivo resulting in enhanced arterial repair following mechanical injury. Accordingly, GSK antagonism is an effective cell enhancement strategy for autologous cell-based therapy with EPCs from high risk patients such as CAD or DM.

Glycogen Synthase Kinase 3 (GSK3), a serine/threonine kinase initially characterized in the context of glycogen metabolism, has been repeatedly realized as a multitasking protein that can regulate numerous cellular events in both metazoa and protozoa. I recently found GSK3 plays a role in regulating chemotaxis, a guided cell movement in response to an external chemical gradient, in one of the best studied model systems for chemotaxis - Dictyostelium discoideum. It was initially found that comparing to wild type cells, gsk3- cells showed aberrant chemotaxis with a significant decrease in both speed and chemotactic indices. In Dictyostelium, phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-triphosphate (PIP3) signaling is one of the best characterized pathways that regulate chemotaxis. Molecular analysis uncovered that gsk3- cells suffer from high basal level of PIP3, the product of PI3K. Upon chemoattractant cAMP stimulation, wild type cells displayed a transient increase in the level of PIP3. In contrast, gsk3- cells exhibited neither significant increase nor adaptation. On the other hand, no aberrant dynamic of phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN), which antagonizes PI3K function, was observed. Upon membrane localization of PI3K, PI3K become activated by Ras, which will in turn further facilitate membrane localization of PI3K in an F-Actin dependent manner. The gsk3- cells treated with F-Actin inhibitor Latrunculin-A showed no significant difference in the PIP3 level. I also showed GSK3 affected the phosphorylation level of the localization domain of PI3K1 (PI3K1-LD). PI3K1-LD proteins from gsk3- cells displayed less phosphorylation on serine residues compared to that from wild type cells. When the potential GSK3 phosphorylation sites of PI3K1-LD were substituted with aspartic acids (Phosphomimetic substitution), its membrane localization was suppressed in gsk3- cells. When these serine residues of PI3K1-LD were substituted with alanine, aberrantly high level of membrane localization of the PI3K1-LD was monitored in wild type cells. Wild type, phosphomimetic, and alanine substitution of PI3K1-LD fused with GFP proteins also displayed identical localization behavior as suggested by the cell fraction studies. Lastly, I identified that all three potential GSK3 phosphorylation sites on PI3K1-LD could be phosphorylated in vitro by GSK3.

No description available.

Cocaine is a highly abused psychostimulant with repeated use potential culminating in addiction, a disease associated with compulsive drug seeking, use and high rates of relapse despite adverse consequences. It is well established that cocaine acts by binding to and blocking monoamine transporters therefore increasing synaptic extracellular monoamine concentrations. Cocaine also increases extracellular levels of the excitatory amino acid glutamate within the neural circuitry comprising the ascending dopamine system. Cocaine induces a number of behavioral and neurochemical manifestations following acute and repeated administration. As such, elucidating the molecular mechanisms involved in the behavioral and neuromodulatory effects of cocaine are critical to the development of effective pharmacotherapies for cocaine addiction. The overall aim of this research was to identify a novel kinase that may be involved in the behavioral effects of cocaine. Thus, we chose to investigate glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK3), which has recently gained attention as being critical in dopaminergic and glutamatergic signal transduction. GSK3 is a critical mediator of many intracellular signaling systems. The activity of GSK3 is regulated by several kinases including Akt, with inactivation occurring via phosphorylation of the inhibitory serine-21(α-isoform) and serine-9 (β-isoform) residues. It is well established that acute cocaine administration causes hyper-locomotion in animal models and that repeated cocaine administration elicits a sensitized or increased response to the locomotor-stimulating properties of the drug. The studies outlined herein sought to determine whether non-selective and selective inhibition of GSK3 would regulate acute cocaine-induced hyper-locomotion. Further, we investigated the role of GSK3 in the development of cocaine-induced locomotor sensitization. Results of the research outlined herein demonstrate that pharmacological inhibition of GSK3 reduced both the acute behavioral responses to cocaine and the long-term neuroadaptations produced by repeated cocaine, therefore suggesting a role for GSK3 in the behavioral manifestations associated with cocaine exposure. Previous studies have assessed the role of the dopamine D1 receptor in locomotor behaviors. As cocaine indirectly activates dopamine D1 receptors, we investigated whether activation of GSK3 was necessary for the expression of dopamine D1 receptor-mediated behaviors. To assess the role of GSK3 in dopamine D1 receptor-induced hyperactivity, GSK3 was inhibited prior to administration of the selective dopamine D1 receptor agonist SKF-82958. Selective inhibition of GSK3 reduced ambulatory and stereotypic activity produced by SKF-82958. These data implicate a role for GSK3 in the behavioral manifestations associated with dopamine D1 receptor activation. To further assess the importance of GSK3 in cocaine-induced behaviors we investigated the role of GSK3 in various facets of cocaine-conditioned reward. We show that selective inhibition of GSK3 prevented the development of cocaine-conditioned reward using a conditioned place preference paradigm, indicating a reduction in the rewarding properties of cocaine. Relapse to drug-seeking can be precipitated by certain stimuli including the drug itself, drug-paired contextual cues and stress. Memory of drug-paired cues is highly resistant to extinction and the molecular mechanisms underlying relapse have not been clearly defined. Our results demonstrate that inhibition of GSK3 interfered with the reconsolidation of cocaine-associated contextual memories by preventing the retrieval of cocaine conditioned place preference. Inhibition of GSK3 in a neutral environment 24 hours prior to the test for reinstatement, however, did not prevent reinstatement of cocaine place preference following a cocaine priming injection. Thus, our results indicate that GSK3 serves an important role in cocaine-conditioned reward and is a critical intracellular signaling protein for the development of cocaine place preference. GSK3 is also essential to the reconsolidation and subsequent retrieval of cocaine-associated contextual cues. In addition to studying the role of GSK3 in cocaine-induced behaviors, we assessed the neuromodulatory effects of cocaine on GSK3 activity. As stated previously, the activity of GSK3 is regulated by a number of kinases including Akt (protein kinase B). Recent evidence suggests that psychostimulants regulate the activity of Akt and subsequently GSK3 in various brain regions. Here, the ability of cocaine to regulate the activity of Akt and GSK3 was investigated. Enzymatic activity was assessed by determining protein phosphorylation in the brain. Mice administered acute injections of cocaine showed a significant decrease in phosphorylated Akt (Thr. 308) and GSK3β; in the caudate putamen as determined by Western blot analysis. Cocaine did not alter pAkt (Thr. 308) or pGSK3β; in the nucleus accumbens or frontal cortex. The role of dopaminergic and glutamatergic receptors on cocaine-induced attenuation of pAkt (Thr. 308) and pGSK3β; was also assessed. Blockade of the dopamine D1, D2 or glutamatergic NMDA receptor prevented cocaine-induced attenuation of pGSK3β; in the caudate putamen. Only blockade of the dopamine D2 receptor prevented the effect of cocaine on pAkt (Thr. 308) levels in the caudate putamen. The results of the present study indicate that the activity of Akt and GSK3 is selectively regulated in the brain following acute cocaine, an effect that is contingent upon both dopaminergic and glutamatergic receptor regulation. In summary, the experiments described in this dissertation tested the initial hypothesis that GSK3 mediates acute cocaine-induced hyperactivity and locomotor sensitization. Acute cocaine administration increased the phosphorylation of GSK3 in the caudate putamen, therefore enhancing kinase activity. Further, the increase in GSK3 activity following cocaine administration is contingent upon activation of the dopamine D1 and D2 receptors and the glutamatergic NMDA receptor. Results presented herein also demonstrate a role for GSK3 in cocaine-conditioned reward. Selective inhibition of GSK3 prevented the development of cocaine conditioned place preference. Inhibition of GSK3 also prevented the retrieval of cocaine contextual memories, therefore playing an important role in reconsolidation. Thus, the results presented in this dissertation indicate that GSK3 is a neuromodulator of cocaine-induced behaviors and may be an important factor underlying cocaine addiction. / Pharmacology

Objetivo: A glicogênio sintase quinase-3 beta (GSK-3B) é uma enzima presente em diversos sistemas biológicos e está envolvida na fisiopatologia de vários transtornos neuropsiquiátricos, incluindo o transtorno bipolar. No entanto, estudos in vivo da GSK-3B que envolvam pacientes bipolares são escassos. O objetivo do presente estudo foi avaliar a atividade da GSK-3B em plaquetas de pacientes idosos com transtorno bipolar em tratamento, em comparação com idosos saudáveis não medicados. Métodos: Foram obtidas amostras de plaquetas de 63 idosos (transtorno bipolar=31, grupo controle=32). A atividade enzimática foi estimada pela razão entre a expressão da forma fosforilada (inativa) da GSK-3B em relação à expressão de ambas as formas (ativa e inativa) da enzima (GSK-3B total), que fornece uma estimativa inversa da atividade enzimática (um aumento da razão indica menor atividade da GSK-3B). A intensidade dos sintomas foi avaliada pela Escala de Depressão de Hamilton de 21 itens e pela Escala de Mania de Young, e o desempenho cognitivo foi avaliado pelo Cambridge Cognitive Test e pelo Mini- Exame do Estado Mental. Resultados: A forma fosforilada da GSK-3B (fosfo-GSK-3B) e a razão da GSK-3B estavam elevadas em pacientes com transtorno bipolar, quando comparadas aos idosos do grupo controle (p=0,018 e p=0,016, respectivamente). Na avaliação por subgrupos, observaram-se níveis da fosfo-GSK-3B e da razão da GSK-3B mais elevados nos pacientes com transtorno bipolar em uso de lítio, quando comparados aos controles (p=0,030 e p=0,023, respectivamente), mas não quando comparados aos pacientes com transtorno bipolar que não usavam lítio. O uso das demais medicações avaliadas (anticonvulsivantes, antipsicóticos, antidepressivos e 16 benzodiazepínicos) não estava associado a diferenças na fosfo-GSK-3B ou na razão da GSK-3B, quando comparado aos controles. Conclusões: A atividade da GSK-3B está diminuída no presente grupo de idosos com transtorno bipolar em tratamento medicamentoso. A ausência de um grupo de pacientes com transtorno bipolar não medicado, e a não uniformidade das medicações utilizadas não nos permitem afirmar se essa redução se deve à características da doença bipolar em si ou seria influência dos medicamentos utilizados / Objective: Glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta (GSK-3B) is an important enzyme present in various biological systems and it is involved in the pathophysiology of many prevalent neuropsychiatric diseases, including bipolar disorder. However, human studies addressing GSK-3B activity in vivo are scarce. The aim of the present study was to evaluate GSK-3B activity in platelets of elderly patients with bipolar disorder undergoing clinical treatment as compared to healthy older adults unmedicated. Methods: Platelets samples where obtained from 63 older adults (bipolar disorder=31, comparison group=32). Enzymatic activity was estimated by means of the ratio between the expression of the phosphorylated (inactive) form of GSK-3B to the expression of both forms (active and inactive) of the enzyme (total GSK-3B), yielding an inverse estimate of enzymatic activity (higher ratio indicating lower GSK- 3B activity). The magnitude of mood symptoms was evaluated by the Hamilton Depression Scale and Young Mania Rating Scale, and the cognitive performance was assessed by the Cambridge Cognitive Test and the Mini-Mental State Examination. Results: The phosphorylated form of GSK-3B (phospho-GSK-3B) and the GSK-3B ratio were elevated in patients with bipolar disorder as compared to healthy controls (P=.018 and P=.016, respectively). When analyzed by subgroups, phospho-GSK-3B and the GSK-3B ratio were elevated in bipolar patients undergoing lithium treatment as compared to healthy controls (P=.030 and P=.023, respectively), but not when compared to bipolar patients without lithium treatment. The use of other drugs evaluated (anticonvulsants, antipsychotics, antidepressants and benzodiazepines) was not associated with distinct values of either phospho-GSK-3B or GSK-3B ratio, when compared to controls. 18 Conclusions: GSK-3B activity is decreased in this group of older adults with bipolar disorder undergoing pharmacological treatment. The absence of a group of unmedicated bipolar patients and the non-uniform pattern of treatment do not allow us to say whether this reduction is due to characteristics of bipolar illness itself or an influence of the therapeutic drugs in use

No description available.

The survival of several neuron populations during development, including sympathetic neurons, is strictly regulated by neurotrophins such as nerve growth factor (NGF) released from innervation targets. NGF activates its receptor, TrkA, at axon terminals, to generate signals that are transmitted retrogradely to cell bodies to induce signaling cascades regulating survival. A general view of this process is that NGF generates retrograde survival signals that, when delivered to cell bodies, induce downstream survival signaling that prevents apoptosis. A retrograde survival signal proposed to be necessary for sympathetic neuron survival consists of endosomes containing NGF and phosphorylated TrkA. For this signal, phosphorylated TrkA arriving at cell bodies is required to initiate survival signaling. Studies have tested the necessity of TrkA phosphorylation in the cell bodies for survival: results from different studies contradict each other. Moreover, the Trk inhibitor, K252a, used in these studies, has reported non-specific effects. Using an alternate Trk inhibitor, Gö6976, data presented in this thesis demonstrates that NGF can promote survival by retrograde signaling that does not require TrkA phosphorylation in the cell bodies. These retrograde signals may be composed of signaling molecules activated downstream of TrkA in axons since pro-survival molecules downstream of TrkA, Akt and CREB, were found activated in the cell bodies/proximal axons. Data presented in this thesis also reveals a fundamentally different mechanism for how NGF promotes sympathetic neuron survival: a retrograde apoptotic signal that is suppressed by NGF. NGF withdrawal from axons induced the “axon apoptotic signal” that was retrogradely transmitted to cell bodies to activate a key pro-apoptotic molecule, c-jun. The axon apoptotic signal, which was blocked by the kinase inhibitors rottlerin and chelerythrine, was necessary for apoptosis in response to NGF deprivation. Evidence GSK3 is involved in generation or transmission of the axon apoptotic signal was provided by experiments with GSK3 inhibitors and siRNA. The axon apoptotic signal discovery refutes the previous view that NGF acting on axon terminals supports survival exclusively by generating retrograde survival signals. The axon apoptotic signal has broad implications for understanding nervous system development and other conditions where neuronal apoptosis occurs, such as neurotrauma and neurodegenerative diseases.