Introdução. O aquecimento global resultante do aumento nas concentrações de gases de efeito estufa (GEE) é um dos principais problemas ambientais que o mundo enfrenta atualmente. Atividades humanas estão alterando a composição da atmosfera através da emissão de GEE, particularmente dióxido de carbono (CO2), metano (CH4), óxido nitroso (N2O). Os veículos automotores são uma importante fonte de emissão desses gases, tanto diretamente, através da emissão de gases pelo escapamento, como também através das emissões oriundas do processo de produção e manipulação dos combustíveis usados pelos mesmos. Objetivo. Obter, de uma amostra de veículos típicos da frota do estado de São Paulo, os valores da emissão dos principais gases de efeito estufa (CO2, CH4, N2O) presentes no gás de escapamento de veículos leves de passageiros equipados com motores de ignição por centelha (ciclo Otto), utilizando os combustíveis gasool 22, AEHC e GNV. Métodos. Os veículos foram ensaiados em dinamômetro de chassis, seguindo ciclo de condução e amostragem dos poluentes conforme Norma ABNT NBR 6601, para medição da emissão de escapamento; e pela Norma ABNT NBR 11481, adaptada para a medição das emissões fugitivas de metano. Além dos métodos de análise dos gases prescritos nestas Normas, foram utilizados os métodos FTIR (Fourier Transform InfraRed) para medição de CO2, CH4 e N2O e NDIR (Non Dispersive InfraRed) para medição de N2O. Resultados. As emissões médias, em g/km, de GEE presentes no gás de escapamento dos veículos ensaiados foram, respectivamente para os veículos movidos a AEHC, gasool 22 e GNV, de 193,1, 193,5 e 170,9 para o CO2; 0,050, 0,051 e 0,590 para o CH4 e 0,017, 0,068 e 0,033 para o N2O. A emissão fugitiva média de CH4 devido a vazamentos no sistema de alimentação dos veículos movidos a GNV ensaiados foi de 0,0412 g/hora. Conclusão. Embora o principal gás de efeito estufa emitido diretamente por automóveis seja sem dúvida o CO2, os gases CH4 e N2O podem contribuir de maneira significativa para a emissão total de GEE e por isso não podem ser desprezados. Apesar de a emissão de GEE por veículos ser apenas uma fração do total da emissão global, o aumento da frota mundial de veículos pode tornar essa fonte de emissão cada vez mais significativa. / Introduction. Global warming resulting from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHG´s) is one of the major environmental problems the world faces today. Human activities are changing the composition of the atmosphere through the emission of GHG´s, particularly carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O). The vehicles are a source of emissions of these gases, both directly, through the emission of exhaust gases, as well as by emissions from the production process and handling of fuels used by them. Objective. To get, for a sample of typical vehicles of the fleet of the state of São Paulo, the values of the emission of the main greenhouse gases (CO2, CH4, N2O) presents in the gas of exhaust pipe of light duty passengers vehicles equipped with engines of spark ignition (Otto cycle), using the fuels gasohol 22, ethanol and CNG. Methods. The vehicles were tested on a chassis dynamometer, following driving cycle and sampling of the pollutants by the Standard ABNT NBR 6601, for measuring the exhaust emission, and the Standard ABNT NBR 11481, adapted for the measurement of fugitive emissions of methane. In addition to the methods of analysis of these gases prescribed by those standards, were used the methods FTIR (Fourier Transform InfraRed) for measurement of CO2, CH4 and N2O and NDIR (Non dispersive InfraRed) for measurement of N2O. Results. The average emissions of GHG´s in the exhaust gas of the vehicles tested were, respectively for the AEHC, gasohol and CNG vehicles, and expressed in g / km, of 193.1, 193.5 and 170.9 for CO2, 0.050, 0.051 and 0.590 for CH4 and 0.017, 0.068 and 0.033 for N2O. The average CH4 fugitive emissions due to leaks in the supply system of the CNG vehicles tested was 0.0412 g / hour. Conclusion. Although the main greenhouse gas emitted directly by car is undoubtedly the CO2, the gases CH4 and N2O can contribute significantly to the total emission of GHG´s and therefore can not be neglected. Although the emission of GHG´s by vehicles is only a fraction of total global emissions, increasing the fleet of vehicles may make this source of emissions increasingly significant.

O processamento anaeróbio da vinhaça pode ser útil para reduzir as emissões de gases do efeito estufa após a aplicação do seu efluente, com menos C lábil, em solos. O presente trabalho mediu as emissões de gases de efeito estufa através do método de câmaras estáticas após a aplicação das duas formas de vinhaça (in natura e processada anaerobiamente ) e a interação com ureia em um LATOSSOLO VERMELHO simulando a camada 0-20 cm de um solo em uma coluna de PVC. Foi observado que a aplicação de vinhaça processada ao solo emitiu 2.592 µg C-CH4 m-2 ao final de 90 dias, mais do que os tratamentos com vinhaça processada com ureia (-590 µg C-CH4 m-2), controle (-601 g C-CH4 m-2), vinhaça in natura (-1.176 µg C-CH4m-2), vinhaça in natura com ureia (-1.533 µg C-CH4 m-2), e ureia (-2.760 µg C-CH4 m-2). A adição de vinhaça in natura estimulou a emissão de CO2 produzindo 60,2 g C-CO2 m-2 ao longo de 90 dias, valor superior aos tratamentos vinhaça processada com ureia (36,7 g C-CO2 m-2), ureia (35,1 g C-CO2m-2), controle (25,8 g C-CO2m-2) e vinhaça processada (22,1 g C-CO2 m-2). A adição de vinhaça in natura com ureia (45,0 g C-CO2 m-2) emitiu mais CO2 em relação aos tratamentos controle e vinhaça processada, além disso, a aplicação da ureia junto da vinhaça processada provocou um aumento na emissão de CO2 em relação a vinhaça processada sozinha. Os maiores fluxos de N2O foram observados no solo fertilizado com vinhaça processada com ureia (302,8 mg N-N2O m-2) e apenas ureia (199,4 mg N-N2 m-2), seguido da fertilização com vinhaça in natura com ureia (70,9 mg N- N2O m-2) superior aos tratamentos com vinhaça processada (12,14mg N-N2O m-2), controle (7,54 mg N-N2O m-2) e vinhaça in natura (6,64 mg N- N2O m-2). Com a realização das primeiras medições das emissões de gases do efeito estufa após a aplicação da vinhaça processada no solo concluiu-se que as emissões de CO2 são mitigadas, porém provoca aumento fluxo de CH4 e N2O do solo para a atmosfera em relação à vinhaça in natura. / The vinasse anaerobic digestion migh be usefull to avoid greenhouse gases emissions after apply the effluent on soil due the low labile C content. This research measured during 90 days the greenhouse gases emissions using the static chamber method after the application of two forms of vinasse (in natura and digested) and the interaction of both with urea in a soil PVC column simulating the 0-20 cm layer of a Red Latossol. The digested vinasse application in the soil produced 2,592 µg C-CH4 m-2 at the end of 90 days, more than soil with digested vinasse with urea (-590 µg C-CH4 m-2), control (-601 µg C-CH4 m-2), vinasse in natura (-1,176 µgC-CH4m-2), vinasse in natura with urea (-1,533 µg C-CH4 m-2), urea (-2,760 µg C-CH4 m-2). Vinasse in natura induced soil CO2 emission, producing 60.2 g C-CO2 m-2 at the end of 90 days, greater than digested vinasse with urea (36.7 g C-CO2 m-2), urea (35.1 g C-CO2 m-2), control (25.8 g C-CO2 m-2), and diested vinasse (22.1 g C-CO2 m-2). The interaction between vinasse in natura and urea in the soil emitted (45.0 g C-CO2 m-2) more CO2 than soil control and digested vinasse, furthermore the interaction between urea and digested vinasse resulted in a greater CO2 release to atmosphere than only digested vinasse. The greater N2O efflux was provided by digested vinasse with urea (302.8 mg N- N2O m-2) and only urea (199.4 mg N-N2O m-2) application, followed by vinasse in natura (70.9), which emitted more nitrous oxide than digested (12.14 mg N-N2O m-2), control (7.54 mg N- N2O m-2), and vinasse in natura (6.64 mg N- N2O m-2). After this first measurement of greenhouse gases efflux after soil fertilization with anaerobic digested vinasse was observed a CO2 mitigation, however the CH4 and N2O efflux from soil to atmosphere can be greater than vinasse in natura.

The CO2 concentration in the atmosphere is rising dramatically each year. Increases are certain to influence growth of C3 plants. This thesis focuses on the growth and development of rice (Oryza sativa L. cv. Jarrah).The major questions addressed in this thesis were whether elevated atmospheric CO2 concentrations would : 1/ increase grain yield where the soil was flooded or unflooded under conditions of varying phosphorus supply; 2/ change the timing of development; 3/ alter the partitioning of dry weight and nutrients between the roots and shoots; and, 4/ influence grain quality. The mechanisms underlying growth and developmental changes at elevated CO2 were also investigated. After experimentation, it is concluded that the grain yield of rice will increase as the atmospheric CO2 concentration rises even when phosphorus supplies are low. The largest response to rising atmospheric CO2 concentrations will occur under dryland conditions but increases of up to 60 per cent are likely in flooded rice. Importantly, there is likely to be a reduction in the life cycle of rice crops as the CO2 concentration rises. This would have the advantage that more crops could be sown in one season. The quality of the rice grain produced at high CO2 concentrations will also change, with milling quality appearance likely to improve. The cooked rice will be firmer. Experiments also showed that rice grown in flooded soil at different CO2 concentrations is an excellent system for investigating the control of plant growth and development, particularly the influence of hormones. / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

<p>The European Union has initiated a scheme for trading with CO2 emission allowances as a measure to reduce greenhouse gas emission levels. Since January 2005 companies from certain energy demanding sectors, responsible for approximately 50 % of the total CO2 emissions in the EU, are participating in this scheme, the so called EU Emission Trading Scheme.</p><p>A trading scheme covering all sectors, i.e. all emissions in the EU would lead to the most cost efficient solution to reduce emissions by a certain amount. This means that the EU Emission Trading Scheme should be enlarged to cover also the transport sector, which is not participating today, but responsible for about 21 % of the total greenhouse gas emissions in the EU.</p><p>There are three ways to include the transport sector in the EU Emission Trading Scheme, i.e. to administrate the handling and trading of emission allowances in the transport sector. The first is a so called downstream approach, meaning that the actual emitter of the GHG, in this case a private person driving a car or a haulage contractor using trucks to transport goods, would be responsible for acquiring and trading emission allowances in accordance to the amount of greenhouse gases that he emits. The second way is a so called upstream approach, meaning that the owner of fuel depots would be responsible for acquiring and trading emission allowances corresponding to the amount of fossil fuel that he is selling, which is proportional to the amount of greenhouse gases that is emitted when using the fuel. The third solution is to lay the responsibility for acquiring and trading emission allowances on the companies that are ordering the transportation service, indirectly causing greenhouse gas emissions when their goods are being transported.</p><p>All three solutions have their advantages and disadvantages, but the benefits of using the upstream approach are the greatest. By allocating the responsibility for keeping and trading emission allowances at the fuel depots, an extensive part of greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuel use, not only in the transport sector, could be covered by the EU Emission Trading Scheme to the lowest administrational cost possible.</p>

This paper is written as part of a two-year study of climate change policy choices facing Sweden, conducted under the auspices of the Center for Business and Policy Studies in Stockholm. As such, it aims to be a primer on emissions trading as an instrument for limiting greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions under the Kyoto Protocol to the Framework Convention on Climate Change. The first section notes general considerations concerning emissions trading, particularly in relation to climate policy. The second section explains the many forms of emissions trading included in the Kyoto Protocol. The third section provides a brief review of emissions trading proposals that have been advanced in Europe as of mid-2000. The fourth section addresses issues in the design and implementation of a national GHG emissions trading system. The brief conclusion is followed by an appendix, which draws applicable lessons concerning the choice and design of a cap and trade system from the U.S. SO2 emissions trading program. / Abstract in HTML and technical report in PDF available on the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Joint Program on the Science and Policy of Global Change website (http://mit.edu/globalchange/www/) / Includes bibliographical references (p. 38-39).

The importance of utilizing different types of energy and their technical application is discussed. Awareness around the globe about the world energy crisis and its critical environmental condition has put more emphasis on the use of renewable energies in every corner of life. It is a well‐known fact that global warming, inefficient use of energy and greenhouse gases are damaging the environment, species and human life drastically. These issues will be discussed in recently conducted research. To address the crucial state of our environment, two simultaneous scenarios are considered. Initially, energy conservation and the switch to a low carbon/no carbon fuel are studied. As for energy conservation in buildings, smart methods in the use of energy in buildings are discussed. Based on different research reported, humans must change their attitude toward the use of resources, and in particular, be conscientious about energy consumption. Next, renewable energy promises a suitable alternative to energy needs in this century, and the best means to overcome the environmental issue and energy crisis is discussed. The practical methods of calculation for solar technology equipment, ground source heat pumps, and wind turbines are explained. In the application part of the study, four buildings are chosen as case studies; two of them from residential sectors, one is a commercial/institutional building, and the fourth is an industrial building. A ground source heat pump for heating and cooling, a solar water heater for heating space or hot water, and a photovoltaic panel for generating electricity are designed for the case studies. Even projects under hybrid systems combined from two technologies are designed. 36 different energy options are calculated for the four case studies. Results show that if a target is reducing CO2 emissions, what systems are the best. In contrast, when decision making is based on budget, what system is the first choice? Not only are technology, environmental protection and cost the main parameters for deciding on renewable technologies, but so are reliability, installation, maintenance and ease of use. Hence, renewable energy systems are categorized based on a broad vision.

Addressing climate change is a major undertaking. Agricultural soil has the potential to assist in decreasing the concentration of GHGs in the atmosphere by storing CO2 in the soil. Carbon offset markets have been suggested as a cost effective means of reducing GHG emissions. Farmers can increase their soil sink potential by applying Beneficial Management Practices (BMPs) that enhance carbon sequestration through improvements to soil, nutrient and livestock management practices (Fulton et. al., 2005). Whether or not a market for carbon offsets will emerge depends on a number of factors which mainly are related to the profitability of the BMPs and the costs of implementing a carbon contract. Provided that a market for carbon offsets emerges, the effectiveness of the market depends, in part, on the degree to which buyers and sellers in the market comply with the terms of the contracts they sign. The resource costs associated with monitoring and verification may result in incomplete monitoring. As long as monitoring is not perfect, non-compliance will be an issue. <p>The analysis that will be performed in this thesis introduces non-compliance in the economic analysis of carbon-offset market. The purpose of this work is to examine the overall cost effectiveness of the carbon-offset market when introducing non-compliance. <p>Firstly the theoretical model investigates the incentives for different farmers to participate in the carbon offsets market as well as incentives for engaging in cheating. The model recognizes farmers heterogeneity with respect to cost differences and examines the economic determinants of farmers non-compliance as well as the consequences of non-compliance on the performance of the carbon-offset market. Results support the standard finding that the extent of producers non-compliance decreases with an increase in the audit probability and/or an increase in the penalty per unit of non-compliance. In addition, the number of producers participating in the carbon offsets market is shown to increase with an increase in the carbon-offset price.<p> The analysis then introduces intermediaries in the market that will take care of trading carbon offsets as well as monitoring producers. The traders role in this study is played by an IOF (investor owned-firm) or a PA (producers association). Within the IOF, the analysis focuses on the monopoly and oligopoly structures. The key role of the traders is to guarantee, based on the amount of monitoring that is undertaken, that the emitters purchase only carbon offsets that actually correspond to sequestered carbon. The analysis then examines three cases for the group that monitors farmers compliance a group owned by for-profit traders, a government-run agency and a group owned by the PA trader. This part of the thesis examines what impact the involvement of the traders in the carbon-offset market has on non-compliance, as well as how the structure of the monitoring group affects non-compliance and the amount of carbon offsets traded in the market. The results of the analysis show that the monitoring groups always undertake sufficient monitoring to ensure that full compliance is achieved thus, while non-compliance is possible, it does not occur in equilibrium. The finding suggests that the formation of a government monitoring agency can potentially increase traded output and lower the price paid by emitters, still these changes are likely to be small, particularly when the trading sector is monopolistic. The overall analysis in this chapter shows that the optimal amount of enforcement, and as a result the cost effectiveness of a carbon-offset market, depends on the nature of the organization that undertakes the enforcement. <p>The next consideration of the thesis is the heterogeneity attributed to the timing of sequestration by different farmers. The analysis focuses on the carbon offsets pooling by considering two structures for the aggregator: a for-profit aggregator and a producers association. Pooling resources enables the farmers to benefit from economies of scale. The pricing schedule used by the aggregator is a two-part tariff. The two-part tariff is used as a way of providing an incentive for the farmers sequestering large amounts of carbon to participate in the pool. The study considers two alternatives for the coefficients that might be used to decide on the amount of carbon offsets to which each farmer will be entitled: default coefficient and custom coefficients. Each situation is modeled in a principal agent framework. <p>The analysis examines how the aggregator will target the monitoring service for different group of farmers. The investigation reveals that, under different scenarios, a PA or a FPA (for-profit aggregator) might lead to the formation of a heterogeneous pool or a homogeneous pool of each type. <p>The last issue investigated in this dissertation is the coexistence of a FPA and a PA in the default coefficient case. The analysis show that both aggregator structures can exist together in the market in the same time if the savings in the monitoring costs made possible by the PA are smaller than the cost of organizing the pool. If this condition is not satisfied the FPA cannot survive in the market and the producers association will dominate. <p>In addition to providing a better understanding of how the carbon-offset market may perform when introducing non-compliance, the results of this study can assist in assessing the cost effectiveness of the carbon-offset market when enforcement is undertaken by different organizations. Furthermore, the last consideration of the pooling option might help in selecting which type of pool a heterogeneous or a homogeneous one might perform better under different alternatives.

Remote sensing of atmospheric gases improves our understanding of the state and evolution of the Earth’s environment. At the beginning of the thesis, the basic principles for the retrieval of concentrations of atmospheric gases from spectra are presented with a focus on ground-based observations. An overview of the characteristic features of different platforms, viewing geometries, measurement sites, and Fourier Transform Spectrometers (FTSs) used in the measurements are provided. The thesis covers four main projects. The first study of the global distribution of atmospheric phosgene was carried out using a total of 5614 measured profiles from the satellite-borne Atmospheric Chemistry Experiment FTS (ACE-FTS) spanning the period February 2004 through May 2006. The phosgene concentrations display a zonally symmetric pattern with the maximum concentration located approximately over the equator, at about 25 km in altitude, and the concentrations decrease towards the poles. A layer of enhanced concentration of phosgene spans the lower stratosphere at all latitudes, with volume mixing ratios of 20-60 pptv. The reasons for the formation of the phosgene distribution pattern are explained by the insolation, lifetime of phosgene and the Brewer-Dobson circulation. The ACE observations show lower phosgene concentrations in the stratosphere than were obtained from previous observations in the 1980s and 1990s due to a significant decrease in source species. The Portable Atmospheric Research Interferometric Spectrometer for the Infrared (PARIS-IR) is a copy of the ACE-FTS that was designed for ground-based and balloon-borne measurements. The first balloon flight was part of the Middle Atmosphere Nitrogen TRend Assessment (MANTRA) 2004 balloon payload. Some useful engineering information was obtained on the thermal performance of the instrument during the flight. As part of the MANTRA program, a ground-based inter-instrument comparison campaign was conducted with the objective of assessing instrument performance, and evaluating data processing routines and retrieval codes. PARIS-IR provides similar quality results for stratospheric species as does the University of Toronto FTS. An advanced study was carried out for the Carbon Cycle science by Fourier Transform Spectroscopy (CC-FTS) mission, which is a proposed future satellite mission to obtain a better understanding of the sources and sinks of greenhouse gases in the Earth’s atmosphere by monitoring total and partial columns of CO2, CH4, N2O, and CO in the near infrared together with the molecular O2 column. To evaluate the spectral regions, resolution, optical components, and spectroscopic parameters required for the mission, ground-based Fourier transform spectra, recorded at Kiruna, Kitt Peak, and Waterloo, were used. Dry air volume mixing ratios of CO2 and CH4 were retrieved from the ground-based observations. A FTS with a spectral resolution of 0.1 cm-1, operating between 2000 and 15000 cm-1, is suggested as the primary instrument for the mission. Further progress in improving the atmospheric retrievals for CO2, CH4 and O2 requires new laboratory measurements to improve the spectroscopic line parameters. Atmospheric observations were made with three FTSs at the Polar Environment Atmospheric Research Laboratory (PEARL) during spring 2006. The vertical column densities of O3, HCl, HNO3, HF, NO2, ClONO2 and NO from PARIS-IR, the Eureka DA8 FTS, and the ACE-FTS show good agreement. Chorine activation and denitrification in the Arctic atmosphere were observed in the extremely cold stratosphere near Eureka, Nunavut, Canada. The observed ozone depletion during the 2006 campaign was attributed to chemical removal.

De internationella klimatförhandlingarna handlar om att hitta lösningar för att stabilisera halten av växthusgaser i atmosfären och att uppnå tvågradersmålet. För att uppnå målet finns olika utsläppsmål att sträva mot. Ett är ett utsläppstak där varje land inte får släppa ut mer än 2 ton CO2-ekv/capita per år för att tvågradersmålet ska uppnås. Ett annat utsläppsmål är att minska de nationella utsläppen med en viss procentsats. EU:s del i minskningen ligger på 80-95 % till 2050. Som en del av arbetet mot målet presenterade EU i mars 2011 en färdplan för ett utsläppsnålt samhälle. Där presenteras åtgärder för fem olika sektorer samt hur stora utsläppsminskningarna beräknas kunna vara för varje sektor. Energisektorn är den sektor som beräknas minska mest och väntas nästintill nå en nollnivå. Även bostads- och servicesektorn väntas minska sina utsläpp kraftigt. Jordbrukssektorn är den sektor som beräknas minska minst. I färdplanen uppmanas varje medlemsland att ta fram en nationell färdplan till 2050. Det här examensarbetet syftar till att analysera ett antal av de nationella färdplanerna för att bl.a. ta reda på vilka förutsättningar och möjligheter som har en betydande påverkan. Resultatet visar att alla länderna antagit samma mål som EU, nämligen 80 %. Om alla länderna minskar med 80 % till 2050 är det bara Slovenien som når gränsen på 2 ton CO2-ekv/capita. Alla andra länder ligger över gränsen. Vägen till minskade utsläpp är framförallt utsläppsnåla energitekniker, energieffektiviseringar och en ökad användning av el eftersom den har potential att bli emissionsfri. Vindkraft är den teknik som många av de studerade länderna väljer att satsa på, främst till havs då utrymmet på land är begränsat. Kärnkraft är en energikälla som det råder delade meningar om. En del länder anser att det är en bra koldioxidsnål energikälla som gynnar klimatet medan andra länder menar att den är för osäker både ekonomiskt och säkerhetsmässigt. CCS (carbon capture and storage) tas upp av alla de studerade länderna som en möjlig åtgärd för att minska utsläppen. För att minska användningen av fossila bränslen i transportsektorn är det framförallt biodrivmedel och el som ska användas. Slutsatser som kan dras av arbetet är att CCS med de rätta förutsättningarna kommer att finnas i större skala 2050 än idag. Elbilar kommer att spela en stor roll i transportsektorn. Kärnkraft och förnybara alternativ är tekniker som kommer att spela en stor roll i energisystemet 2050. För att nå tvågradersmålet krävs internationella överenskommelser som också minskar risken för koldioxidläckage. / The international climate negotiations are to find solutions to stabilize concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and to achieve the two degree target. To achieve this goal there are various emission targets to aim for. One is a ceiling in which each country must not emit more than two tons CO2-ekv/capita per year for two degree target to be achieved. Another emission target is to reduce national emissions by a certain percentage. EU's part in the reduction is 80-95 % by 2050. As a step towards the target in March 2011 the European Union launched a roadmap to a low carbon economy. It sets out measures for five different sectors and the size of the emission reductions estimated for each sector. The energy sector is the sector that is expected to decrease most, and is expected to almost reach a zero level. Also housing and service is expected to reduce their emissions significantly. The agricultural sector is the sector that is expected to decrease the least. The roadmap urges each member country to develop a national roadmap for 2050. This examination work aims to analyze a number of national roadmaps to find out what resources and opportunities that have a significant impact on the roadmap. The results show that all the countries have adopted the same target as the EU, namely 80%. If all countries reduce by 80% by 2050, only Slovenia will reach the limit of two tons CO2-ekv/capita, all other countries are above the limit. The ways to reduce emissions are primarily low-carbon energy technologies, energy efficiency and increased use of electricity because it has the potential to be emission-free. Wind power is the technology that many of the countries are choosing to invest in, mainly at sea when the space on land is limited. Nuclear power is an energy source where the opinion is split in two. Some countries consider it a good low-carbon energy source and favorable climate, while others argue that it is uncertain in both economy and safety. CCS (carbon capture and storage) is taken up by all the countries studied as a possible measure to reduce emissions. To reduce use of fossil fuels in the transport sector, it is primarily biofuels and electricity to be used. Conclusions to be drawn from this work are that CCS with the right conditions will be on a larger scale in 2050 than today. Electric cars play a big role in the transport sector. Nuclear power and renewable alternatives are techniques that will play a major role in the energy 2050. To reach the two-degree target requires international agreements that also reduce the risk of carbon leakage.

The European Union has initiated a scheme for trading with CO2 emission allowances as a measure to reduce greenhouse gas emission levels. Since January 2005 companies from certain energy demanding sectors, responsible for approximately 50 % of the total CO2 emissions in the EU, are participating in this scheme, the so called EU Emission Trading Scheme. A trading scheme covering all sectors, i.e. all emissions in the EU would lead to the most cost efficient solution to reduce emissions by a certain amount. This means that the EU Emission Trading Scheme should be enlarged to cover also the transport sector, which is not participating today, but responsible for about 21 % of the total greenhouse gas emissions in the EU. There are three ways to include the transport sector in the EU Emission Trading Scheme, i.e. to administrate the handling and trading of emission allowances in the transport sector. The first is a so called downstream approach, meaning that the actual emitter of the GHG, in this case a private person driving a car or a haulage contractor using trucks to transport goods, would be responsible for acquiring and trading emission allowances in accordance to the amount of greenhouse gases that he emits. The second way is a so called upstream approach, meaning that the owner of fuel depots would be responsible for acquiring and trading emission allowances corresponding to the amount of fossil fuel that he is selling, which is proportional to the amount of greenhouse gases that is emitted when using the fuel. The third solution is to lay the responsibility for acquiring and trading emission allowances on the companies that are ordering the transportation service, indirectly causing greenhouse gas emissions when their goods are being transported. All three solutions have their advantages and disadvantages, but the benefits of using the upstream approach are the greatest. By allocating the responsibility for keeping and trading emission allowances at the fuel depots, an extensive part of greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuel use, not only in the transport sector, could be covered by the EU Emission Trading Scheme to the lowest administrational cost possible.