Motor deficits are debilitating in that they affect everyday function in human beings (Zillmer & Spiers, 2001). Cerebral Palsy (CP) is one particular disorder that is primary characterised by motor deficits, more specifically gross motor function deficits. As a result, people with CP are restricted in their everyday function and lack independence and self-sufficiency. With other factors such as stigmatisation and prejudice, social participation becomes limited which leads to isolation and loneliness, which may further lead to psychological disorders such as depression, anxiety, low self esteem and poor quality of life. These assumptions are based on the application of the mental health model, and one could assume the poorer the level of functioning the more likely a person’s psychological well-being will suffer. Thus, the study attempted to investigate these assumptions by exploring the relationship between levels of gross motor function and psychological well-being. A sample of 43 participants based in a care centre in Johannesburg completed a demographic questionnaire, the Major Depression Inventory (MDI), The Becks Anxiety Inventory (BAI), The Rosenburg Self Esteem Scale (RSE) and the Comprehensive Quality of Life Scale (COMQOL – A5). In addition, through observation, the level of gross motor function was determined by utilising the Gross Motor Function Classification System (GMFCS). The data that was gathered and was statistically manipulated to explore three main questions. Before the relationship between gross motor function and psychological well-being could be explored it was necessary to examine the suitability of the use of psychological measure on an adult with CP sample. Results indicated that the MDI (r = 0.78), BAI (r = 0.76). RSE (0.77), and COMQOL (r = 0.99) had high internal constancy reliability. The relationship between demographical variables, namely, age, gender, years of residency, experience of motor deterioration and presence of epilepsy, were tested against the level of gross motor function. No significant results were found apart from motor PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.softwarelabs.com 4 deterioration. More participants with a higher level of gross motor function experienced motor deterioration (77%) than those with a lower level of gross motor function (44%). Lastly, the relationship between psychological variables and gross motor function was investigated as well as difference between the levels. Correlations revealed very weak positive relationships, with the exception of depression having a very weak negative relationship. All relationship were non significant. Although slight differences were seen between levels, they were non significant. 7% of participants were diagnosed with depressive disorders, and 47% with anxiety disorders. Problems with certain questions pertaining to the BAI raised concerns over the suitability of its use in CP adult samples. The study concluded that psychological measures, excluding the BAI, were suitable for use on a sample of adults with CP. It also highlighted that the level of motor functioning is not related to or determines psychological well-being in adults with CP. PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.softwarelabs.com

In the holistic development of the young child, optimal gross motor development has an important influence on optimal physical, perceptual, cognitive, language, affective-social and normative (behavioural) development (Kapp, 1991; Gallahue & Ozmun, 1998), and is therefore considered to be essential in the preschool years. The goal of this dissertation was to present the results of much-needed recent research on gross motor development of a group of children living in an urban area in South Africa, by 1) determining the current levels of gross motor development, 2) assessing the prevalence of and the influence of overweight and obesity on gross motor development, 3) establishing the relationship between overweight and obesity, gross motor development and gender, 4) determining the relationship between quantitative and qualitative assessment results of the one leg balance, and 5) investigating the occurrence of gender differences in gross motor development, in a group of 3-6 year old children living in Potchefstroom. These aims were addressed by structuring the dissertation in eight chapters, Chapter 1 constituting the introduction and statement of the problem, Chapter 2 a review of relevant literature, Chapters 3 to 7 constituting 5 research articles addressing the specific aims of the study, and Chapter 8 including the summary, conclusions and recommendations. For each of the 5 research articles, the participants were 3-6 year old children (N = 514) who lived in Potchefstroom and had been enrolled in the movement development program (MDP) presented by movement developmentalists of the Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education (P.U. for C.H.E.). Descriptive statistics (Chapter 3-7), practical significance based on effect sizes (Chapter 4 and 5), 2 way frequency tables and Pearson Chi-square as well as the Phi for two-way tables (Chapter 6), and t-values, degrees of difference and p-values (Chapter 7) were used. The current levels of gross motor development of preschool children in Potchefstroom (Chapter 3) were determined by testing a total of 462 3-6 year old children (215 males and 247 females) on 8 gross motor tasks, and comparing the results to norms and criteria as found in the literature. The 3, 4 and 5 year olds compared favourably to their counterparts in all the tests except for balance walk and catching, standing long jump in the 4 year olds and throwing in the 5 year old group. The 6 year old group scored lower than the norms and criteria in all the tests except for standing long jump, indicating alarming implications for school readiness. Chapter 4 and Chapter 5 examined the prevalence of and the differences in the quantitative and qualitative execution of four gross motor tasks (standing long jump, hopping, one leg balance and catching) between groups of overweight and obese (0) and nonobese (NO) boys, and girls, respectively. In the male study, 17 0-participants and 49 NO-participants were compared, while 13 0-participants and 54 NO-participants were used in the female study. Differences of practical significance (medium or large effects) in favour of nonobese groups were found in all the quantitative and qualitative tests among the male participants, while similar differences were found in only the quantitative tests for the one leg balance and all the qualitative tests among the female participants. A prevalence of overweight and obesity of 16.35% was found among the boys and 11.81% among the girls. The results indicated that 0-children of the ages 3-6 years generally compare poorly to NO-children in relation to gross motor proficiency. In Chapter 6, the one leg balance ability of 514 subjects was quantitatively and qualitatively assessed using valid norms and criteria found in literature. A positive relationship of statistical significance (p :S 0.05) was established between the quantitative and qualitative scores of the one leg balance in every age group. A relatively large percentage (44.10%) of 3 year olds scored well above the average level for their age in both types of assessment, indicating that the norms and criteria used might not be appropriate for 3 year olds. Relatively large percentages (25.27% - 27.47%) of the 6 year olds scored below the average level for 5 year olds in the qualitative assessment, suggesting developmental balance delays or disorders. These findings indicate that a quantitative and qualitative assessment should be combined to assure a more accurate assessment. The results of Chapter 7, involving 221 male and 243 female participants, showed significant gender differences in hopping and balancing on the right leg in favour of the females in the 3 year old group, and in the standing long jump and throwing for distance in favour of the males in the 5 and 6 year old groups, indicating that separate norms should be used for the different genders when assessing standing long jump and throwing for distance in 5 and 6 year olds. In the light of the findings of these studies, recommendations presented in Chapter 8 for the assessment and structuring of a programme for the optimal development of gross motor skills in preschool children, living in urban areas in South Africa, include that: 1) special attention should be given to the optimal development of gross motor skills of 6 year olds in a structured gross motor development programme, 2) obesity should be addressed even in the preschool years, and activities for the specific skills shown to be related to overweight and obesity (balance skills and catching in boys and girls and standing long jump in boys) should also be specifically emphasized in these children, 3) both a quantitative and a qualitative assessment should be used specifically in the one leg balance assessment and is recommended for other fundamental motor assessments, and 4) separate norms should be used for the assessment of the standing long jump and throwing for distance in 5 and 6 year olds, and more emphasis should be placed on ball skills in girls, and co-ordination skills of boys in the structuring of a movement development programme. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Human Movement Science))--Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education, 2002

In the holistic development of the young child, optimal gross motor development has an important influence on optimal physical, perceptual, cognitive, language, affective-social and normative (behavioural) development (Kapp, 1991; Gallahue & Ozmun, 1998), and is therefore considered to be essential in the preschool years. The goal of this dissertation was to present the results of much-needed recent research on gross motor development of a group of children living in an urban area in South Africa, by 1) determining the current levels of gross motor development, 2) assessing the prevalence of and the influence of overweight and obesity on gross motor development, 3) establishing the relationship between overweight and obesity, gross motor development and gender, 4) determining the relationship between quantitative and qualitative assessment results of the one leg balance, and 5) investigating the occurrence of gender differences in gross motor development, in a group of 3-6 year old children living in Potchefstroom. These aims were addressed by structuring the dissertation in eight chapters, Chapter 1 constituting the introduction and statement of the problem, Chapter 2 a review of relevant literature, Chapters 3 to 7 constituting 5 research articles addressing the specific aims of the study, and Chapter 8 including the summary, conclusions and recommendations. For each of the 5 research articles, the participants were 3-6 year old children (N = 514) who lived in Potchefstroom and had been enrolled in the movement development program (MDP) presented by movement developmentalists of the Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education (P.U. for C.H.E.). Descriptive statistics (Chapter 3-7), practical significance based on effect sizes (Chapter 4 and 5), 2 way frequency tables and Pearson Chi-square as well as the Phi for two-way tables (Chapter 6), and t-values, degrees of difference and p-values (Chapter 7) were used. The current levels of gross motor development of preschool children in Potchefstroom (Chapter 3) were determined by testing a total of 462 3-6 year old children (215 males and 247 females) on 8 gross motor tasks, and comparing the results to norms and criteria as found in the literature. The 3, 4 and 5 year olds compared favourably to their counterparts in all the tests except for balance walk and catching, standing long jump in the 4 year olds and throwing in the 5 year old group. The 6 year old group scored lower than the norms and criteria in all the tests except for standing long jump, indicating alarming implications for school readiness. Chapter 4 and Chapter 5 examined the prevalence of and the differences in the quantitative and qualitative execution of four gross motor tasks (standing long jump, hopping, one leg balance and catching) between groups of overweight and obese (0) and nonobese (NO) boys, and girls, respectively. In the male study, 17 0-participants and 49 NO-participants were compared, while 13 0-participants and 54 NO-participants were used in the female study. Differences of practical significance (medium or large effects) in favour of nonobese groups were found in all the quantitative and qualitative tests among the male participants, while similar differences were found in only the quantitative tests for the one leg balance and all the qualitative tests among the female participants. A prevalence of overweight and obesity of 16.35% was found among the boys and 11.81% among the girls. The results indicated that 0-children of the ages 3-6 years generally compare poorly to NO-children in relation to gross motor proficiency. In Chapter 6, the one leg balance ability of 514 subjects was quantitatively and qualitatively assessed using valid norms and criteria found in literature. A positive relationship of statistical significance (p :S 0.05) was established between the quantitative and qualitative scores of the one leg balance in every age group. A relatively large percentage (44.10%) of 3 year olds scored well above the average level for their age in both types of assessment, indicating that the norms and criteria used might not be appropriate for 3 year olds. Relatively large percentages (25.27% - 27.47%) of the 6 year olds scored below the average level for 5 year olds in the qualitative assessment, suggesting developmental balance delays or disorders. These findings indicate that a quantitative and qualitative assessment should be combined to assure a more accurate assessment. The results of Chapter 7, involving 221 male and 243 female participants, showed significant gender differences in hopping and balancing on the right leg in favour of the females in the 3 year old group, and in the standing long jump and throwing for distance in favour of the males in the 5 and 6 year old groups, indicating that separate norms should be used for the different genders when assessing standing long jump and throwing for distance in 5 and 6 year olds. In the light of the findings of these studies, recommendations presented in Chapter 8 for the assessment and structuring of a programme for the optimal development of gross motor skills in preschool children, living in urban areas in South Africa, include that: 1) special attention should be given to the optimal development of gross motor skills of 6 year olds in a structured gross motor development programme, 2) obesity should be addressed even in the preschool years, and activities for the specific skills shown to be related to overweight and obesity (balance skills and catching in boys and girls and standing long jump in boys) should also be specifically emphasized in these children, 3) both a quantitative and a qualitative assessment should be used specifically in the one leg balance assessment and is recommended for other fundamental motor assessments, and 4) separate norms should be used for the assessment of the standing long jump and throwing for distance in 5 and 6 year olds, and more emphasis should be placed on ball skills in girls, and co-ordination skills of boys in the structuring of a movement development programme. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Human Movement Science))--Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education, 2002

It was the purpose of this present study to investigate the effects of two types of music, tonic and sedative, on the gross motor activity of profound mental retardates. The primary objective was to determine if therapeutic benefits resulting from the application of music could be extended to profound retardates as has already been demonstrated with other levels of retardation.

Barn och vuxna blir allt mindre fysiskt aktiva medborgare vilket i sin tur leder till att hälsan påverkas negativt. Genom att utveckla barn och ungas grovmotoriska förmåga ökas deras fysiska aktivitet vilket i sin tur leder till en bättre hälsa. Forskare visar att idrottslärare har en viktig roll då deras didaktiska kunskaper ger ökad chans till motorisk utveckling hos eleverna och att skolan är en optimal plattform för utvecklingen då många elever endast utövar fysiska aktiviteter i just skolan. Genom mina studier i ämnet idrott och hälsa har jag valt att skriva denna litteraturstudien i just ämnet idrott och hälsa. Litteraturstudien är indelad i tre frågeställningar där den första belyser hur grovmotorik påverkar barn och ungas fysiska förmåga/aktivitet, den andra hur grov motorisk träning/förmåga påverkar elevers skolprestationer och den sista hur den fysiska aktivitetens och motoriska förmågan påverkar elevers självbild. Studien är baserad på elva vetenskapliga artiklar som alla undersökt sambandet mellan grov motorisk förmåga och fysisk aktivitet och dess påverkan på elever på olika sätt. Resultaten visar att en förbättrad grov motorisk förmåga ökar mängden fysisk aktivitet hos barn och unga och att en god grovmotorik kan påverkaelevers skolprestationer positivt. Resultaten visar även att elever med god grovmotorik blir mer socialt accepterade av sina klasskamrater vilket ger en bättre självbild. Det främsta resultatet som framkommit av litteraturstudien är att barn och unga som besitter en god motorisk förmåga kommer tenderar att bli mer fysiskt aktiva än ett barn med sämre motorisk förmåga, barnet kommer även ha en större chans att få ett mer fysiskt aktivt liv.

The purpose of my study was to investigate the child's gross motor movement activities as well as study of the educators planning of gross motor movement activities, and if so, how they are implemented. Methods used in the study is observational and interview. I observed children aged 3-6 years and interviewed two preschool teachers in two different kindergartens in a small municipality in northern Småland. The results showed that the teachers see positively movement in kindergarten and they work daily on children's gross motor skills most unplanned but even with a few planned activities during the week. In kindergarden there are many opportunities for children to exercise gross motor movement activities .

Literature shows that HIV/AIDS greatly affects the self-esteem of HIV/AIDS directly affected learners (these affected learners are either directly infected, or one or both parents are or had been infected). Studies also show that appropriate motor activities can have a positive influence on a child's self-esteem. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of an appropriate motor development programme on the large muscle skills and the self-esteem of 4 to 6 year old HIV/AIDS directly-affected learners. Eight gross motor and perceptual motor skills, as well as self-esteem was evaluated among 28 directly-affected HIV/AIDS (HIV/AIDS-infected as well as - affected) learners in a pre-primary school for terminally sick children in Promosa, a township of Potchefstroom, South Africa. Evaluation took place before and after the implementation of a 12-week long appropriate large muscle development programme. A co-variance analysis (ANCOVA) was done on post-test scores to correct possible differences between pre-test scores in order to achieve a statistical more significant comparison between the experimental and control groups. The motor scores as well as the self-esteem scores of the experimental group showed statistically significant (p≤0.05) improvements after the programme, in contrast with the scores of the control group which showed no significant improvements after completion of the large muscle development programme. These improvements entailed certain fundamental locomotor and balance skills, and self-perceived competence with reference to certain movement skills, as well as peer acceptance. The results imply that by improving the gross motor and perceptual motor skills of HIV/AIDS directly-affected learners by means of an appropriate motor development programme, the self-esteem and related aspects of these learners may be enhanced. / Thesis (M.Ed.)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2007.

Title: Motor performance of pupils with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Objectives: The aim of the work was to determine the level of fine and gross motor skills of upper extremities of the pupils with diagnosis ADHD at schools specialized on these pupils and compare it with the fine and gross motor skills of upper extremities of children without this diagnosis at common elementary school. Further work objective was to determine the level of gross motor skills of lower limbs and laterality of paired organs (hand - foot) within above mentioned groups of pupils. Methods: To determine the level of fine and gross motor skills of upper extremities, gross motor skills of lower limbs, laterality of the upper and lower extremities of the pupils with and without ADHD aged 9-11 years we used these types of tests: "Spiral", "Dotting test", "Beads" (the level of fine motor skills of the upper extremities); "Pack", "Small plate tapping", "Big plate tapping" (the level of gross motor skills of upper extremities); "Tapping the leg" (the level of gross motor skills of the lower limbs); "Typing out the Rhythm" (the laterality of the lower limbs); "Bell" and "Matches" (the laterality of the upper extremities). Results: The fine motor level of dominant hand was in the case of ADHD diagnosed pupils...

O Gross Motor Function System Expanded and Revised (GMFCS E & R) e o Manual Ability Classification System (MACS) têm sido amplamente utilizados na pesquisa e na prática clínica como complemento ao diagnóstico da paralisia cerebral (PC). Ambos consistem em cinco níveis, sendo que o nível V indica maior limitação funcional. O objetivo deste estudo foi realizar o processo de tradução e adaptação transcultural do GMFCS E & R e MACS, avaliar a confiabilidade inter-avaliadores (entre terapeutas e entre terapeutas e pais) e intra-avaliadores (terapeutas) acerca dos sistemas de classificação (GMFCS E & R e MACS) e verificar a influência de fatores relacionados à criança (tipo de PC) e aos pais (escolaridade, renda, ocupação e idade) na confiabilidade entre terapeutas e pais. Participaram 100 crianças com PC, que eram acompanhadas pelo serviço de neurologia ou de reabilitação de um hospital terciário no interior paulista na faixa etária entre 4 a 18 anos, e seus pais. Para a aplicação dos sistemas de classificação realização da tradução e adaptação transcultural do GMFCS E & R, seguiram-se seis estágios: tradução, síntese das traduções, retrotradução para língua de origem, comitê de análise, submissão aos autores e pré-teste. A coleta de dados foi feita por dois terapeutas com diferentes níveis de experiência na área de neuropediatria. Os terapeutas classificaram a função motora grossa da criança (GMFCS E & R) através da observação direta (controle de cabeça, tronco, transferências, mobilidade) e os pais responderam ao GMFCS Family Report Questionnaire, onde deveriam selecionar uma opção, dentre cinco, correspondente ao nível motor da criança. Quanto à habilidade manual (MACS), os terapeutas observaram a criança manipulando objetos (brinquedos, alimentação, vestuário) e obtiveram informações dos pais. Os pais realizaram a classificação da habilidade manual da criança com base na leitura do folheto explicativo do MACS. Foram realizadas filmagens das observações das crianças para avaliação da confiabilidade intra-avaliadores (terapeutas), após um mês da avaliação inicial. Utilizou-se o coeficiente Kappa (k) para avaliação da confiabilidade inter-avaliadores (entre terapeutas e entre terapeutas e pais) e intra-avaliadores (terapeutas) acerca do GMFCS E & R e MACS e o teste do qui-quadrado (x2) para verificar a associação entre os fatores relacionados à criança e aos pais. Após realizados os seis estágios referentes à tradução e adaptação transcultural do GMFCS E & R e MACS, as versões em português foram aprovadas pelos autores. Em relação à confiabilidade inter-avaliadores (AV1 e AV2), obteve-se concordância quase perfeita para o GMFCS E & R e MACS (K = 0,902 e 0,90 respectivamente), assim como intra-avaliadores, obtendo-se concordância quase perfeita para ambos avaliadores acerca do GMFCS E & R (k=1,00) e MACS (K= 0,958 para AV1 e K= 0,833 para AV2). Em relação à confiabilidade entre terapeutas e pais, esta foi substancial para GMFCS E & R (K = 0,716) e considerável para MACS (K =0, 368). Em relação ao GMFCS E & R, verificou-se que o porcentual de discordâncias no grupo de pais que não trabalha fora é significativamente superior ao porcentual de discordância de quem trabalha fora (x 2 =4,79; p= 0,03), quando comparada à classificação do terapeuta. Maior freqüência de pais classificaram as crianças como severamente limitada, comparada à classificação do terapeuta (x 2 =4,26; p= 0,04). Em relação ao MACS, verificou-se que as discordâncias entre terapeutas e pais foram significativamente superiores nas crianças de 4 a 6 e 6 a 12 anos do que em relação às crianças de 12 a 18 anos (p=0,05), assim como pais na faixa etária de 20 a 30 anos discordaram significativamente mais do terapeuta (p=0,04). É importante considerar a influência de fatores ambientais no desempenho típico da criança com PC em relação à função motora grossa e habilidade manual. Portanto, embora terapeutas e pais apresentem diferentes perspectivas em relação a tais aspectos, por julgarem diferentes contextos como referência (pais consideram o desempenho em casa, escola, ambientes externos; o terapeuta, o ambiente clínico), os dois pontos de vista necessitam ser apreciados conjuntamente. Conclui-se que as versões traduzidas para o português Brasil do GMFCS E & R, GMFCS Family Report Questionnaire são confiáveis para classificar crianças com PC por pais e terapeutas. / The Gross Motor Function System Expanded and Revised (GMFCS E & R) and Manual Ability Classification System (MACS) has been widely used in research and clinical practice to complement the diagnosis of cerebral palsy (CP). Both consist of five levels where the level V indicates greater functional limitation. The aim of this study was to carry out the process of translation and cultural adaptation of the GMFCS E & R and MACS, evaluate the inter-rater reliability (between therapists and between therapists and parents) and intra-rater (therapists) about rating systems and verify the influence of factors related to the child (type PC) and parents (education, income, occupation and age) in reliability between therapists and parents. Participants 100 children with CP who were accompanied by the department of neurology and rehabilitation of a tertiary hospital in São Paulo aged 4-18 years and their parents. To perform the translation and cultural adaptation of the GMFCS E & MACS, followed by six stages: translation, synthesis of translations, back translation for source language, analysis committee, submission to the authors and pretest. Data collection was done by two therapists with different levels of experience in neuropediatric.Therapists rated the child\'s gross motor function (GMFCS & E) through direct observation (head control, trunk, transfers, mobility) and parents responded to GMFCS Family Report Questionnaire, which should select an option Among five, corresponding to the child\'s motor. As for manual ability (MACS), therapists observed the child handling objects (toys, food and clothing) and obtained information from parents. Parents held the classification of manual ability of the child based on reading the brochure MACS. Were filmed observations of children to assess intra-rater reliability (therapists), one month after the initial evaluations. To assess the reliability used the kappa coefficient (k) and the chi-square (x2) to determine the association between factors related to the child and parents, the reliability between therapists and parents. Performed after the six stages related to translation and cultural adaptation of the GMFCS E & R and MACS, the Portuguese versions were approved by the authors. Regarding inter-rater reliability (AV1 and AV2), we obtained almost perfect agreement for the GMFCS E & R and MACS (K = 0.902 and 0.90 respectively) as well as intra-rater, yielding almost perfect agreement for both evaluators about the GMFCS E & R(k = 1.00) and MACS (K = 0.958 for AV1 and AV2 for K = 0.833). Regarding reliability between therapists and parents, this was substantial for GMFCS E & R (K = 0.716) and to considerable MACS (K = 0, 368). Regarding the GMFCS E & R, it was found that the percentage of disagreements in the group of parents who do not work out is significantly higher than the percentage of those working outside of disagreement (x 2 = 4.79, p = 0.03), compared to ratings of therapist. Parents classify children as more severely limited than therapists (x 2 = 4.26, p = 0.04). It is important to consider the influence of environmental factors on the performance of children with PC in relation to gross motor function and manual ability. Therefore, parents and therapists have different perspectives regarding such aspects, judging by different contexts as reference (parents consider performance at home, school, outdoors, therapist, the clinical setting), the two points of view need to be assessed together. We conclude that the translated versions for Portuguese - Brazil\'s GMFCS E & R, GMFCS Family Report Questionnaire are reliable to classify children with CP by parents and therapists.

Thesis (M.S.)--University of Delaware, 2006. / Principal faculty advisor: Nancy Getchell, Dept. of Health, Nutrition, and Exercise Sciences. Includes bibliographical references.